On Good and Evil
Bhikkhu P.A. Payutto
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The problem of good and evil
Because kamma is directly concerned with good and evil,
any discussion of kamma must also include a discussion of good and evil.
Standards for defining good and evil are, however, not without their
problems. What is "good," and how is it so? What is it that we
call "evil," and how is that so? These problems are in fact a
matter of language. In the Buddha's teaching, which is based on the Pali
language, the meaning becomes much clearer, as will presently be
demonstrated.
The English words "good" and "evil"
have very broad meanings, particularly the word "good," which is
much more widely used than "evil." A virtuous and moral person
is said to be good; delicious food might be called "good" food;
a block of wood which happens to be useful might be called a
"good" block of wood. Moreover, something which is good to one
person might not be good to many others. Looked at from one angle, a
certain thing may be good, but not from another. Behavior which is
considered good in one area, district or society might be considered bad
in another.
It seems from these examples that there is some
disparity. It might be necessary to consider the word "good"
from different viewpoints, such as good in a hedonistic sense, good in an
artistic sense, good in an economic sense, and so on. The reason for this
disparity is a matter of values. The words "good" and
"evil" can be used in many different value systems in English,
which makes their meanings very broad.
In our study of good and evil the following points
should be borne in mind:
(a) Our study will be from the perspective of the law
of kamma, thus we will be using the specialized terms kusala and akusala
or skillful and unskillful, which have very precise meanings.
(b) Kusala and akusala, in terms of Buddhist ethics,
are qualities of the law of kamma, thus our study of them is keyed to this
context, not as a set of social values as is commonly used for the words
"good" and "evil."
(c) As discussed in Chapter One, the operation of the
law of kamma is related to other laws. Specifically, insofar as the inner
life of the individual is concerned, kammaniyama interacts with
psychological laws (cittaniyama), while externally it is related to Social
Preference.
The meaning of kusala and akusala
Although kusala and akusala are sometimes translated as
"good" and "evil," this may be misleading. Things
which are kusala may not always be considered good, while some things may
be akusala and yet not generally considered to be evil. Depression,
melancholy, sloth and distraction, for example, although akusala, are not
usually considered to be "evil" as we know it in English. In the
same vein, some forms of kusala, such as calmness of body and mind, may
not readily come into the general understanding of the English word
"good."
Kusala and akusala are conditions which arise in the
mind, producing results initially in the mind, and from there to external
actions and physical features. The meanings of kusala and akusala
therefore stress the state, the contents and the events of mind as their
basis.
Kusala can be rendered generally as "intelligent,
skillful, contented, beneficial, good," or "that which removes
affliction." Akusala is defined in the opposite way, as in
"unintelligent," "unskillful" and so on.
The following are four connotations of kusala derived
from the Commentaries:
1. Arogya: free of illness, a mind that is healthy;
mental states which contain those conditions or factors which support
mental health and produce an untroubled and stable mind.
2. Anavajja: unstained; factors which render the mind
clean and clear, not stained or murky.
3. Kosalasambhuta: based on wisdom or intelligence;
mental states which are based on knowledge and understanding of truth.
This is supported by the teaching which states that kusala conditions have
yoniso-manasikara, clear thinking, as forerunner.
4. Sukhavipaka: rewarded by well-being. Kusala is a
condition which produces contentment. When kusala conditions arise in the
mind, there is naturally a sense of well-being, without the need for any
external influence. Just as when one is strong and healthy (aroga),
freshly bathed (anavajja), and in a safe and comfortable place (kosalasambhuta),
a sense of well-being naturally follows.
The meaning of akusala should be understood in just the
opposite way from above: as the mind that is unhealthy, harmful, based on
ignorance, and resulting in suffering. In brief, it refers to those
conditions which cause the mind to degenerate both in quality and
efficiency, unlike kusala, which promotes the quality and efficiency of
the mind.
In order to further clarify these concepts, it might be
useful to look at the descriptions of the attributes of a good mind, one
that is healthy and trouble-free, found in the Commentaries, and then to
consider whether kusala conditions do indeed induce the mind to be this
way, and if so, how. We could then consider whether akusala conditions
deprive the mind of such states, and how they do this.
For easy reference, the various characteristics of
kusala found in the Commentaries can be compiled into groups, as follows:
1. Firm: resolute, stable, unmoving, undistracted.
2. Pure and clean: unstained, immaculate, bright.
3. Clear and free: unrestricted, free, exalted,
boundless.
4. Fit for work: pliant, light, fluent, patient.
5. Calm and content: relaxed, serene, satisfied.
Having looked at the qualities of a healthy mind, we
can now consider the qualities which are known as kusala and akusala,
assessing to see how they affect the quality of the mind.
Some examples of kusala conditions are: sati,
mindfulness or recollection, the ability to maintain the attention with
whatever object or duty the mind is engaged; metta, goodwill; non-greed,
absence of desire and attachment (including altruistic thoughts); wisdom,
clear understanding of the way things are; calm, relaxation and peace;
kusalachanda, zeal or contentment with the good; a desire to know and act
in accordance with the truth; and gladness at the good fortune of others.
When there is goodwill, the mind is naturally happy,
cheerful, and clear. This is a condition which is beneficial to the
psyche, supporting the quality and efficiency of the mind. Goodwill is
therefore kusala. Sati enables the attention to be with whatever the mind
is involved or engaged, recollecting the proper course of action, helping
to prevent akusala conditions from arising, and thus enabling the mind to
work more effectively. Sati is therefore kusala.
Examples of akusala conditions are: sexual desire; ill
will; sloth and torpor; restlessness and anxiety; doubt[a], anger,
jealousy, and avarice.
Jealousy makes the mind spiteful and oppressive,
clearly damaging the quality and health of the mind. Therefore it is
akusala. Anger stirs up the mind in such a way that rapidly affects even
the health of the body, and thus is clearly akusala. Sensual desire
confuses and obsesses the mind. This is also akusala.
Having established an understanding of the words kusala
and akusala, we are now ready to understand good and bad kamma, or kusala
kamma and akusala kamma. As has been already mentioned, intention is the
heart of kamma. Thus, an intention which contains kusala conditions is
skillful, and an intention which contains akusala conditions is unskillful.
When those skillful or unskillful intentions are acted on through the
body, speech or mind, they are known as skillful and unskillful kamma
through body, speech and mind respectively, or, alternatively, bodily
kamma, verbal kamma and mental kamma which are skillful and unskillful as
the case may be.
Kusala and akusala as catalysts for each other
An act of faith or generosity, moral purity, or even an
experience of insight during meditation, which are all kusala conditions,
can precipitate the arising of conceit, pride and arrogance. Conceit and
pride are akusala conditions. This situation is known as "kusala
acting as an agent for akusala." Meditation practice can lead to
highly concentrated states of mind (kusala), which in turn can lead to
attachment (akusala). The development of thoughts of goodwill and
benevolence to others (kusala), can, in the presence of a desirable
object, precipitate the arising of lust (akusala). These are examples of
kusala acting as an agent for akusala.
Sometimes moral or meditation practice (kusala) can be
based on a desire to be reborn in heaven (akusala). A child's good
behavior (kusala) can be based on a desire to show off to its elders (akusala);
a student's zeal in learning (kusala) can stem from ambition (akusala);
anger (akusala), seen in the light of its harmful effects, can lead to
wise reflection and forgiveness (kusala); the fear of death (akusala) can
encourage introspection (kusala): these are all examples of akusala as an
agent for kusala.
An example: the parents of a teenage boy warn their son
that his friends are a bad influence on him, but he takes no notice and is
lured into drug addiction. On realizing his situation, he is at first
angered and depressed, then, remembering his parents' warnings, he is
moved by their compassion (akusala as an agent for kusala), but this in
turn merely aggravates his own self-hatred (kusala as an agent for akusala).
These changes from kusala to akusala, or akusala to
kusala, occur so rapidly that the untrained mind is rarely able to see
them.
Gauging good and bad kamma
It has been mentioned that the law of kamma has a very
intimate relationship with both psychological laws and Social Preference.
This very similarity can easily create misunderstandings. The law of kamma
is so closely related to psychological laws that they seem to be one and
the same thing, but there is a clear dividing line between the two, and
that is intention. This is the essence and motivating force of the law of
kamma and is that which gives the law of kamma its distinct niche among
the other niyama or laws. Cittaniyama, on the other hand, governs all
mental activity, including the unintentional.
Human intention, through the law of kamma, has its own
role distinct from the other niyama, giving rise to the illusion that
human beings are independent of the natural world. Intention must rely on
the mechanics of cittaniyama in order to function, and the process of
creating kamma must operate within the parameters of cittaniyama.
Using an analogy of a man driving a motor boat, the
"driver" is intention, which is the domain of the law of kamma,
whereas the whole of the boat engine is comparable to the mental factors,
which are functions of cittaniyama. The driver must depend on the boat
engine. However, for the "boat engine" to lead the
"boat," that is, for the mind to lead life and the body, in any
direction, is entirely at the discretion of the "driver,"
intention. The driver depends on and makes use of the boat, but also takes
responsibility for the welfare of both boat and engine. In the same way,
the law of kamma depends on and makes use of cittaniyama, and also accepts
responsibility for the welfare of life, including both the body and the
mind.
There is not much confusion about this relationship
between the law of kamma and cittaniyama, mainly because these are not
things in which the average person takes much interest. The issue that
creates the most confusion is the relationship between the law of kamma
and Social Preference, and this confusion creates ambiguity in regard to
the nature of good and evil.
We often hear people say that good and evil are human
or social inventions. An action in one society, time or place, may be
regarded as good, but in another time and place regarded as bad. Some
actions may be acceptable to one society, but not to another. For example,
some religions teach that to kill animals for food is not bad, while
others teach that to harm beings of any kind is never good. Some societies
hold that a child should show respect to its elders, and that to argue
with them is bad manners, while others hold that respect is not dependent
on age, and that all people should have the right to express their
opinions.
To say that good and evil are matters of human
preference and social decree is true to some extent. Even so, the good and
evil of Social Preference do not affect or upset the workings of the law
of kamma in any way, and should not be confused with it. "Good"
and "evil" as social conventions should be recognized as Social
Preference. As for "good" and "evil," or more
correctly, kusala and akusala, as qualities of the law of kamma, these
should be recognized as attributes of the law of kamma. Even though the
two are related they are in fact separate, and have very clear
distinctions.
That which is at once the relationship, and the point
of distinction, between this natural law and the Social Preference is
intention, or will. As to how this is so, let us now consider.
In terms of the law of kamma, the conventions of
society may be divided into two types:
1. Those which have no direct relationship to kusala
and akusala.
2. Those which are related to kusala and akusala.
Those conventions which have no direct relationship to
kusala and akusala are the accepted values or agreements which are
established by society for a specific social function, such as to enable
people to live together harmoniously. They may indeed be instruments for
creating social harmony, or they may not. They may indeed be useful to
society or they may in fact be harmful. All this depends on whether or not
those conventions are established with sufficient understanding and
wisdom, and whether or not the authority who established them is acting
with pure intention.
These kinds of conventions may take many forms, such as
traditions, customs or laws. "Good" and "evil" in this
respect are strictly matters of Social Preference. They may change in many
ways, but their changes are not functions of the law of kamma, and must
not be confused with it. If a person disobeys these conventions and is
punished by society, that is also a matter of Social Preference, not the
law of kamma.[b]
Now, let us consider an area in which these social
conventions may overlap with the law of kamma, such as when a member of a
society refuses to conform to one of its conventions, or infringes on
it.[c] In so doing, that person will be acting on a certain intention.
This intention is the first step in, and is therefore a concern of, the
law of kamma. In many societies there will be an attempt to search out
this intention for ascertaining the quality of the action. That is again a
concern of Social Preference, indicating that that particular society
knows how to utilize the law of kamma. This consideration of intention by
society is not, however, in itself a function of the law of kamma. (That
is, it is not a foregone conclusion -- illegal behavior is not always
punished. However, whether actions are punished or not they are kamma in
the sense that they are volitional actions and will bring results.)
As for the particular role of the law of kamma,
regardless of whether society investigates the intention or not, or even
whether society is aware of the infringement, the law of kamma functions
immediately the action occurs, and the process of fruition has already
been set in motion.
Simply speaking, the deciding factor in the law of
kamma is whether the intention is kusala or akusala. In most cases, not to
conform with any Social Preference can only be said to constitute no
intentional infringement when society agrees to abandon or to reform that
convention. Only then will there be no violation of the public agreement.
This can be illustrated by a simple example. Suppose
two people decide to live together. In order to render their lives
together as smooth and as convenient as possible, they agree to establish
a set of regulations: although working in different places and returning
from work at different times, they decide to have the evening meal
together. As it would be impractical to wait for each other indefinitely,
they agree that each of them should not eat before seven pm. Of those two
people, one likes cats and doesn't like dogs, while the other likes dogs
and doesn't like cats. For mutual well-being, they agree not to bring any
pets at all into the house.
Having agreed on these regulations, if either of those
two people acts in contradiction to them, there is a case of intentional
infringement, and kamma arises, good or bad according to the intention
that instigated it, even though eating food before seven pm., or bringing
pets into a house, are not in themselves good or evil. Another couple
might even establish regulations which are directly opposite to these. And
in the event that one of those people eventually considers their
regulations to be no longer beneficial, they should discuss the matter
together and come to an agreement. Only then would any intentional
nonconformity on that person's part be free of kammic result. This is the
distinction between "good" and "evil," and
"right" and "wrong," as changing social conventions,
as opposed to the unchanging properties of the law of kamma, kusala and
akusala.
The conventions which are related to kusala and akusala
in the law of kamma are those conventions which are either skillful or
unskillful. Society may or may not make these regulations with a clear
understanding of kusala and akusala, but the process of the law of kamma
continues along its natural course regardless. It does not change along
with those social conventions.
For example, a society might consider it acceptable to
take intoxicants and addictive drugs. Extreme emotions may be encouraged,
and the citizens may be incited to compete aggressively in order to spur
economic growth. Or it might be generally believed that to kill people of
other societies, or, on a lesser scale, to kill animals, is not
blameworthy.
These are examples where the good and evil of Social
Preference and kusala and akusala are at odds with each other: unskillful
conditions are socially preferred and "good" from a social
perspective is "bad" from a moral one. Looked at from a social
perspective, those conventions or attitudes may cause both positive and
negative results. For example, although a life of tension and high
competitiveness may cause a high suicide rate, an unusually large amount
of mental and social problems, heart disease and so on, that society may
experience rapid material progress. Thus, social problems can often be
traced down to the law of kamma, in the values condoned and encouraged by
society.
Social Preference and the law of kamma are separate and
distinct. The fruits of kamma proceed according to their own law,
independent of any social conventions which are at odds with it as
mentioned above. However, because the convention and the law are related,
correct practice in regard to the law of kamma, that is, actions that are
kusala, might still give rise to problems on the social level. For
example, an abstainer living in a society which favors intoxicating drugs
receives the fruits of kamma dictated by the law of kamma -- he doesn't
experience the loss of health and mental clarity due to intoxicating drugs
-- but in the context of Social Preference, as opposed to the law of kamma,
he may be ridiculed and scorned. And even within the law of kamma there
may arise problems from his intentional opposition to this Social
Preference, in the form of mental stress, more or less depending on his
wisdom and ability to let go of social reactions.
A progressive society with wise administrators uses the
experience accumulated from previous generations in laying down the
conventions and laws of society. These become the good and evil of Social
Preference, and ideally they should correlate with the kusala and akusala
of kammaniyama. The ability to establish conventions in conformity with
the law of kamma would seem to be a sound gauge for determining the true
extent of a society's progress or civilization.
In this context, when it is necessary to appraise any
convention as good or evil, it would best be considered from two levels.
Firstly, in terms of Social Preference, by determining whether or not it
has a beneficial result to society. Secondly, in terms of the law of kamma,
by determining whether or not it is kusala, beneficial to mental
well-being.
Some conventions, even though maintained by societies
for long periods of time, are in fact not at all useful to them, even from
the point of view of Social Preference, let alone from the point of view
of the law of kamma. Such conventions should be abandoned, and it may be
necessary for an exceptional being with pure heart to point out their
fault.
In the case of a convention which is seen to be helpful
to society and to human progress, but which is not in conformity with the
kusala of the law of kamma, such as one which enhances material progress
at the expense of the quality of life, it might be worth considering
whether the people of that society have not gone astray and mistaken that
which is harmful as being beneficial. A truly beneficial custom should
conform with both Social Preference and the law of kamma. In other words,
it should be beneficial to both the individual and society as a whole, and
beneficial on both the material and psychic levels.
In this regard we can take a lesson from the situation
of society in the present time. Human beings, holding the view that wealth
of material possessions is the path to true happiness, have proceeded to
throw their energies into material development. The harmful effects of
many of our attempts at material progress are only now becoming apparent.
Even though society appears to be prosperous, we have created many new
physical dangers, and social and environmental problems threaten us on a
global scale. Just as material progress should not be destructive to the
physical body, social progress should not be destructive to the clarity of
the mind.
The Buddha gave a set of reflections on kusala and
akusala for assessing the nature of good and evil on a practical level,
encouraging reflection on both the good and evil within (conscience), and
the teachings of wise beings (these two being the foundation of conscience
and modesty).[d] Thirdly, he recommended pondering the fruits of actions,
both individually and on a social basis. Because the nature of kusala and
akusala may not always be clear, the Buddha advised adhering to religious
and ethical teachings, and, if such teachings are not clear enough, to
look at the results of actions, even if only from a social basis.
For most people, these three bases for reflection
(i.e., individually, socially, and from the accepted teachings of wise
beings) can be used to assess behavior on a number of different levels,
ensuring that their actions are as circumspect as possible.
Thus, the criteria for assessing good and evil are: in
the context of whether an action is kamma or not, to take intention as the
deciding factor; and in the context of whether that kamma is good or evil,
to consider the matter against the following principles:
Primary Factors
Inquiring into the roots of actions, whether the
intentions for them arose from one of the skillful roots of non-greed,
non-aversion or non-delusion, or from one of the unskillful roots of
greed, aversion or delusion.
Inquiring into the effects on the psyche, or mental
well-being, of actions: whether they render the mind clear, calm and
healthy; whether they promote or inhibit the quality of the mind; whether
they encourage the arising of skillful conditions and the decrease of
unskillful conditions, or vice versa.
Secondary Factors
1. Considering whether one's actions are censurable to
oneself or not (conscience).
2. Considering the quality of one's actions in terms of
wise teachings.
3. Considering the results of those actions:
a. towards oneself
b. towards others.
It is possible to classify these standards in a
different way, if we first clarify two points. Firstly, looking at actions
either in terms of their roots, or as skillful and unskillful in
themselves, are essentially the same thing. Secondly, in regard to
approval or censure by the wise, we can say that such wise opinions are
generally preserved in religions, conventions and laws. Even though these
conventions are not always wise, and thus any practice which conflicts
with them is not necessarily unskillful, still it can be said that such
cases are the exception rather than the rule.
We are now ready to summarize our standards for good
and evil, or good and bad kamma, both strictly according to the law of
kamma and also in relation to Social Preference, both on an intrinsically
moral level and on a socially prescribed one.
1. In terms of direct benefit or harm: are these
actions in themselves beneficial? Do they contribute to the quality of
life? Do they cause kusala and akusala conditions to increase or wane?
2. In terms of beneficial or harmful consequences: are
the effects of these actions harmful or beneficial to oneself?
3. In terms of benefit or harm to society: are they
harmful to others, or helpful to them?
4. In terms of conscience, the natural human reflexive
capacity: will those actions be censurable to oneself or not?
5. In terms of social standards: what is the position
of actions in relation to those religious conventions, traditions, social
institutions and laws which are based on wise reflection (as opposed to
those which are simply superstitious or mistaken beliefs)?
Prior to addressing the question of the results of
kamma in the next chapter, it would be pertinent to consider some of the
points described above in the light of the Pali Canon.
"What are skillful (kusala) conditions? They are
the three roots of skillfulness -- non-greed, non-aversion and
non-delusion; feelings, perceptions, proliferations and consciousness
which contain those roots of skillfulness; bodily kamma, verbal kamma and
mental kamma which have those roots as their base: these are skillful
conditions.
"What are unskillful (akusala) conditions? They
are the three roots of unskillfulness -- greed, aversion and delusion --
and all the defilements which arise from them; feelings, perceptions,
proliferations and consciousness which contain those roots of
unskillfulness; bodily kamma, verbal kamma and mental kamma which have
those roots of unskillfulness as a foundation: these are unskillful
conditions."[12]
* * *
"There are two kinds of danger, the overt danger
and the covert danger.
"What are the 'overt dangers'? These are such
things as lions, tigers, panthers, bears, leopards, wolves ... bandits ...
eye diseases, ear diseases, nose diseases ... cold, heat, hunger, thirst,
defecation, urination, contact with gadflies, mosquitoes, wind, sun, and
crawling animals: these are called 'overt dangers.'
"What are the 'covert dangers'? They are bad
bodily actions, bad verbal actions, bad mental actions; the hindrances of
sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and doubt; greed,
aversion and delusion; anger, vengeance, spite, arrogance, jealousy,
meanness, deception, boastfulness, stubbornness, contention, pride,
scornfulness, delusion, heedlessness; the defilements, the bad habits; the
confusion; the lust; the agitation; all thoughts that are unskillful:
these are the 'covert dangers.'
"They are called 'dangers' for what reason? They
are called dangers in that they overwhelm, in that they cause decline, in
that they are a shelter.
"Why are they called dangers in that they
overwhelm? Because those dangers suppress, constrict, overcome, oppress,
harass and crush ...
"Why are they called dangers in that they cause
decline? Because those dangers bring about the decline of skillful
conditions ...
"Why are they called dangers in that they are a
shelter? Because base, unskillful conditions are born from those things
and take shelter within them, just as an animal which lives in a hole
takes shelter in a hole, a water animal takes shelter in water, or a
tree-dwelling animal takes shelter in trees .. "[13]
* * *
"When greed, aversion and delusion arise within
his mind, they destroy the evil doer, just as the bamboo flower signals
the ruin of the bamboo plant ..."[14]
* * *
"See here, Your Majesty. These three things arise
in the world not for welfare or benefit, but for woe, for discomfort. What
are those three? They are greed, aversion and delusion ..."[15]
* * *
"Monks, there are these three roots of
unskillfulness. What are the three? They are the greed-root, the
aversion-root and the delusion-root of unskillfulness ...
"Greed itself is unskillful; whatever kamma is
created on account of greed, through action, speech or thought, is also
unskillful. One in the power of greed, sunk in greed, whose mind is
distorted by greed, causes trouble for others by striking them,
imprisoning them, crushing them, decrying them, and banishing them,
thinking, 'I am powerful, I am mighty.' That is also unskillful. These
many kinds of coarse, unskillful conditions, arising from greed, having
greed as their cause, having greed as their source, having greed as
condition, persecute the evil doer.
"Hatred itself is unskillful; whatever kamma is
created on account of hatred, through action, speech or thought, is also
unskillful. One in the power of hatred ... causes trouble for others ...
that is also unskillful. These many kinds of coarse, unskillful conditions
persecute the evil doer ...
"Delusion itself is unskillful; whatever kamma is
created on account of delusion, through action, speech or thought, is also
unskillful. One in the power of delusion causes trouble for others ...
that is also unskillful. These many kinds of unskillful conditions
persecute the evil doer in this way.
"One who is thus caught up, whose mind is thus
infected, in the coarse, unskillful conditions born of greed, hatred and
delusion, experiences suffering, stress, agitation and anxiety in this
present time. At death, at the breaking up of the body, he can expect a
woeful bourn, just like a tree which is completely entwined with a banyan
creeper comes to ruin, to destruction, to decline, to dissolution ...
"Monks! There are these three roots of
skillfulness. What are the three? They are the non-greed root, the
non-aversion root and the non-delusion root ..."[16]
* * *
"Monks! There are three root causes of kamma. What
are the three? They are greed ... hatred ... delusion ...
"Whatever kamma is performed out of greed ...
hatred ... delusion, is born from greed ... hatred ... delusion, has greed
... hatred ... delusion as its root and as its cause, that kamma is
unskillful, that kamma is harmful, that kamma has suffering as a result,
that kamma brings about the creation of more kamma, not the cessation of
kamma.
"Monks! There are these three root causes of kamma.
What are the three? They are non-greed ... non-hatred ... non-delusion ...
"Whatever kamma is performed out of non-greed ...
non-hatred ... non-delusion, is born of non-greed ... non-hatred ...
non-delusion, has non-greed ... non-hatred ... non-delusion as its root
and its cause, that kamma is skillful, that kamma is not harmful, that
kamma has happiness as a result, that kamma brings about the cessation of
kamma, not the creation of more kamma ..."[17]
* * *
"Listen, Kalamas. When you know for yourselves
that these things are unskillful, these things are harmful, these things
are censured by the wise, these things, if acted upon, will bring about
what is neither beneficial nor conducive to welfare, but will cause
suffering, then you should abandon them."
"Kalamas, how do you consider this matter? Do
greed ... hatred ... delusion in a person, bring about benefit or
non-benefit?"
(Answer: Non-benefit, Venerable Sir.)
"One who is desirous ... is angry ... is deluded;
who is overwhelmed by greed ... hatred ... delusion, whose mind is thus
distorted, as a result resorts to murder, to theft, to adultery, to lying,
and encourages others to do so. This is for their non-benefit and
non-welfare for a long time to come."
(Answer: That is true, Venerable Sir.)
"Kalamas, how say you, are those things skillful
or unskillful?"
(Answer: They are unskillful, Venerable Sir.)
"Are they harmful or not harmful?"
(Answer: Harmful, Venerable Sir.)
"Praised by the wise, or censured?"
(Answer: Censured by the wise, Venerable Sir.)
"If these things are acted upon, will they bring
about harm and suffering, or not? What do you think?"
(Answer: When put into practice, these things bring
about harm and suffering, this is our view on this matter.)
"In that case, Kalamas, when I said, 'Come,
Kalamas, do not believe simply because a belief has been adhered to for
generations ... nor simply because this man is your teacher, or is revered
by you, but when you know for yourselves that these things are unskillful,
then you should abandon those things,' it is on account of this that I
thus spoke."[18]
* * *
The following passage is from an exchange between King
Pasenadi of Kosala and the Venerable Ananda. It is a series of questions
and answers relating to the nature of good and evil, from which it can be
seen that Venerable Ananda makes use of all the standards mentioned above.
King: Venerable Sir, when foolish, unintelligent
people, not carefully considering, speak in praise or blame of others, I
do not take their words seriously. As for pundits, the wise and astute,
who carefully consider before praising or criticizing, I give weight to
their words. Venerable Ananda, which kinds of bodily actions, verbal
actions and mental actions would, on reflection, be censured by wise
ascetics and Brahmins?
Ananda: They are those actions of body ... speech ...
mind that are unskillful, Your Majesty.
King: What are those actions of body ... speech ...
mind that are unskillful?
Ananda: They are those actions of body ... speech ...
mind that are harmful.
King: What are those actions of body ... speech ...
mind that are harmful?
Ananda: They are those actions of body ... speech ...
mind that are oppressive.
King: What are those actions of body ... speech ...
mind that are oppressive?
Ananda: They are those actions of body ... speech ...
mind which result in suffering.
King: What are those actions of body ... speech ...
mind which result in suffering?
Ananda: Those actions of body ... speech ... mind which
serve to torment oneself, to torment others, or to torment both; which
bring about an increase in unskillful conditions and a decrease of
skillful conditions; Your Majesty, just these kinds of actions of body ...
speech ... mind are censured by wise ascetics and Brahmins.
Following that, Venerable Ananda answered the King's
questions about skillful conditions in the same way, summarizing with:
"Those actions of body ... speech ... mind which
result in happiness, that is, those actions which do not serve to torment
oneself, to torment others, nor to torment both; which bring about a
decrease in unskillful conditions and an increase in skillful conditions;
Your Majesty, just these kinds of actions of body ... speech ... mind are
not censured by wise ascetics and Brahmins."[19]
* * *
"One in the power of greed and desire ... hatred
and resentment ... delusion ... with mind thus distorted ... does not know
as it is what is useful to oneself ... what is useful to others ... what
is useful to both sides. Having abandoned desire ... aversion ...
delusion, one knows clearly what is useful to oneself ... useful to others
... useful to both."[20]
* * *
"Bad kamma is like freshly squeezed milk -- it
takes time to sour. Bad kamma follows and burns the evil doer just like
hot coals buried in ash."[21]
* * *
"One who previously made bad kamma, but who
reforms and creates good kamma, brightens the world like the moon
appearing from behind a cloud."[22]
* * *
"To make good kamma is like having a good friend
at your side."[23]
* * *
"Ananda! For those bad actions through body,
speech and mind, which are discouraged by me, the following consequences
can be expected: one is blameworthy to oneself; the wise, on careful
consideration, find one censurable; a bad reputation spreads; one dies
confused; and at death, on the breaking up of the body, one goes to the
woeful states, the nether realms, hell ...
"Ananda! For those good actions through body,
speech and mind recommended by me, the following rewards can be expected:
one is not blameworthy to oneself; the wise, after careful consideration,
find one praiseworthy; a good reputation spreads; one dies unconfused; and
at death, on the breaking up of the body, one attains to a pleasant realm,
to heaven ..."[24]
* * *
"Monks, abandon unskillful conditions. Unskillful
conditions can be abandoned. If it were impossible to abandon unskillful
conditions, I would not tell you to do so ... but because unskillful
conditions can be abandoned, thus do I tell you ... Moreover, if the
abandoning of those unskillful conditions was not conducive to welfare,
but to suffering, I would not say, 'Monks, abandon unskillful conditions,'
but because the abandoning of these unskillful conditions is conducive to
benefit and happiness, so I say, 'Monks, abandon unskillful conditions.'
"Monks, cultivate skillful conditions. Skillful
conditions can be cultivated. If it were impossible to cultivate skillful
conditions, I would not tell you to do so ... but because skillful
conditions can be cultivated, thus do I tell you ... Moreover, if the
cultivation of those skillful conditions was not conducive to welfare, but
to suffering, I would not tell you to cultivate skillful conditions, but
because the cultivation of skillful conditions is conducive to welfare and
to happiness, thus do I say, 'Monks, cultivate skillful
conditions.'"[25]
* * *
"Monks, there are those things which should be
abandoned with the body, not the speech; there are those things which
should be abandoned with the speech, not the body; there are those things
which should be abandoned neither with the body, nor speech, but must be
clearly seen with wisdom (in the mind) and then abandoned.
"What are those things which should be abandoned
with the body, not through speech? Herein, a monk in this Dhamma-Vinaya
incurs transgressions through the body. His wise companions in the Dhamma,
having considered the matter, say to him: 'Venerable Friend, you have
incurred these offenses. It would be well if you were to abandon this
wrong bodily behavior and cultivate good bodily behavior.' Having been so
instructed by those wise companions, he abandons those wrong bodily
actions and cultivates good ones. This is a condition which should be
abandoned by body, not by speech.
"What are the things which should be abandoned
through speech, not through the body? Herein, a monk in this Dhamma-Vinaya
incurs some transgressions through speech. His wise companions in the
Dhamma, having considered the matter, say to him: 'Venerable Friend, you
have incurred these offenses of speech. It would be well if you were to
relinquish this wrong speech and cultivate good speech.' Having been so
instructed by those wise companions, he abandons that wrong speech and
cultivates good speech. This is a condition which should be abandoned by
speech, not by body.
"What are the things which should be abandoned
neither by body nor speech, but which should be clearly understood with
wisdom and then abandoned? They are greed ... hatred ... delusion ...
anger ... vindictiveness ... spite ... arrogance ... meanness. These
things should be abandoned neither by the body or speech, but should be
clearly understood with wisdom and then abandoned."[26]
Footnotes:
a. These first five qualities are called the Five
Hindrances (nivarana), so named because they are obstacles to the
successful development of meditation or a clear mind. [Back to text]
b. Examples of such conventions are social codes of
dress: before entering a Buddhist temple in Thailand, for example, it is
appropriate to remove shoes and hat, whereas to enter a Christian church
it is often required to wear both. [Back to text]
c. -- such as by refusing to remove one's shoes in a
Buddhist temple or to wear a hat in a Christian church. [Back to text]
d. Hiri: sense of shame; ottappa: fear of wrong doing.
[Back to text]
Source : www.buddhismtoday.com
Update : 01-12-2001
