Morality
Dr. Peter Della Santina
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In Chapter 4 we discussed the Four Noble Truths, our
last topic being the fourth truth, which consists of the Noble Eightfold
Path to the end of suffering. There we used the analogy of climbing a
mountain, where the very first step depends on keeping the summit firmly
in view, while the last step depends on being careful not to stumble at
the outset. In other words, each part of the way depends on the other
parts, and if any part of the path is not completed, the summit will not
be gained. In the same way, in the case of the Noble Eightfold Path, all
the steps are interrelated and depend on one another. We cannot do away
with any one step.
Nonetheless, as mentioned at the end of Chapter 4, the
eight steps of the path have been divided into three ways of practice: (1)
morality, (2) mental development, and (3) wisdom. Although, conceptually
and structurally speaking, the first step of climbing a mountain depends
on the last and the last depends on the first, practically speaking, we do
have to climb the lowest slopes first. We may be attracted to the summit,
but to get there we must cross the lower slopes first; only then can we
proceed to the higher reaches. It is for this very practical reason that
the steps of the Noble Eightfold Path have been divided into these three
ways of practice.
The first of these three ways of practice is morality.
Morality forms the foundation of further progress on the path, of further
personal development. It is said that, just as the earth is the basis of
all animate and inanimate things, so morality is the basis of all positive
qualities. When we look around us, we can see that everything rests on the
earth, from buildings to bridges, animals to human beings. The earth
supports all these things; in the same way, morality is the foundation of
all qualities, all virtues, all attainments, ranging from the mundane to
the supramundane, from success and good fortune to skill in meditation
and, ultimately, wisdom and enlightenment. By means of this analogy, we
can easily understand the importance of good conduct as a fundamental
prerequisite for following the path and achieving results on it.
Why do we take the trouble to stress the importance of
good conduct as the foundation of progress on the path? The reason is that
there is a tendency to think of good conduct as rather dull and boring.
Meditation sounds more exciting and interesting, and philosophy and
wisdom, too, have a kind of fascination about them. There is a dangerous
temptation to neglect the importance of morality and want to go straight
on to the more exciting parts of the path. But if we do not create this
foundation of good conduct, we will not succeed in following the other
steps of the path.
It is necessary to understand how the rules of good
conduct, or the precepts, are established in Buddhism, because there are
different ways in which moral or ethical codes can be presented. If you
look at the moral teachings of the major religions of the world, you will
find that there is a surprising degree of agreement among them. If you
look, for instance, at the moral teachings of Confucius or Lao Tzu, at
those of the Buddha and of Hindu teachers, and at those of Jews,
Christians, and Muslims, you will find that the basic rules of good
conduct are almost identical. However, although the rules in most cases
correspond almost exactly, the attitudes toward these codes and the ways
they are presented, understood, and interpreted differ considerably from
faith to faith.
In general, there are two ways moral codes can be
established--what we might call the authoritarian way and the democratic
way. A good example of the former is God handing down the tablets of the
Ten Commandments to Moses on the mountain. By contrast, in Buddhism we
have what I think we can call a democratic way of establishing the basic
rules of good conduct. You may wonder why I say this when, after all, we
do have rules of morality laid down in scriptures. You might ask,
"Isn't this similar to God handing down the commandments to
Moses?" I think not, because if we look more closely at the meaning
of Buddhist scriptures, we can see what lies behind the rules of good
conduct--namely, the principles of equality and reciprocity.
The principle of equality holds that all living beings
are the same in their basic orientation and outlook. In other words, all
living beings want to be happy, to enjoy life, and to avoid suffering and
death. This is just as true of other living beings as it is of us. The
principle of equality is at the heart of the universality of the Buddha's
vision. Understanding the principle of equality, we are encouraged to act
in light of the additional awareness of the principle of reciprocity.
Reciprocity means that, just as we would not like to be
abused, robbed, injured, or killed, so all other living beings are
unwilling to have such things happen to them. We can put this principle of
reciprocity quite simply by saying, "Do not act toward others in a
way you would not want them to act toward you." Once we are aware of
these principles of equality and reciprocity, it is not hard to see how
they form the foundation of the rules of good conduct in Buddhism.
Let us now look specifically at the contents of
morality in Buddhism. The way of practice of good conduct includes three
parts of the Noble Eightfold Path: (a) right speech, (b) right action, and
(c) right livelihood.
Right speech constitutes an extremely important aspect
of the path. We often underestimate the power of speech. As a consequence,
we sometimes exercise very little control over our faculty of speech. This
should not be so. We have all been very greatly hurt by someone's words at
some time or other in our lives, and similarly, we have sometimes been
greatly encouraged by the words someone has said. In the area of public
life, we can clearly see how those who are able to communicate effectively
are able to influence people tremendously, for better or for worse.
Hitler, Churchill, Kennedy, and Martin Luther King were all accomplished
speakers who were able to influence millions with their words. It is said
that a harsh word can wound more deeply than a weapon, whereas a gentle
word can change the heart and mind of even the most hardened criminal.
Perhaps more than anything else, the faculty of speech differentiates
humans from animals, so if we wish to create a society in which
communication, cooperation, harmony, and well-being are goals to be
attained, we must control, cultivate, and use our speech in helpful ways.
All the rules of good conduct imply respect for values
founded on an understanding of the principles of equality and reciprocity.
In this context, right speech implies respect for truth and respect for
the well-being of others. If we use our faculty of speech with these
values in mind, we will be cultivating right speech, and through this we
will achieve greater harmony in our relationships with others.
Traditionally, we speak of four aspects of right speech--namely, the
avoidance of (a) lying, (b) backbiting or slander, (c) harsh speech, and
(d) idle talk. Some of you may already be familiar with the Buddha's
instructions to his son Rahula about the importance of avoiding lying. He
used the example of a vessel. The vessel had a little bit of water in the
bottom, which he asked Rahula to look at, commenting, "The virtue and
renunciation of those who are not ashamed of lying is small, like the
small amount of water in the vessel." Next, the Buddha threw away the
water in the vessel and said, "Those who are not ashamed of lying
throw away their virtue, just as I have thrown away this water." Then
the Buddha showed Rahula the empty vessel and said, "Just as empty is
the virtue and renunciation of those who habitually tell lies."
In this way the Buddha used the vessel to make the
point that our practice of wholesome actions, our good conduct and
character, are intimately affected by lying. If we are convinced that we
can act in one way and speak in another, then we will not hesitate to act
badly, because we will be confident that we will be able to cover up our
harmful actions by lying. Lying therefore opens the door to all kinds of
unwholesome acts. Slander is divisive. It creates quarrels between
friends, and it creates pain and discord in society. Therefore, just as we
would not like to have our friends turned against us by someone's
slanderous talk, so we ought not to slander others.
Similarly, we ought not to abuse others with harsh
words. On the contrary, we should speak courteously to others, as we would
like them to speak to us. When we come to idle talk, you may wonder why we
cannot even engage in a little chitchat. But the prohibition against idle
talk is not absolute or general. The kind of idle talk meant here is
malicious gossip--that is, diverting ourselves and others by recounting
people's faults and failings. In short, why not simply refrain from using
the faculty of speech--which, as we have seen, is so powerful--for
deception, creating divisions among others, abusing others, and idling
away time at their expense? Instead, why not use it constructively--for
communicating meaningfully, uniting people, encouraging understanding
between friends and neighbors, and imparting helpful advice? The Buddha
once said, "Pleasant speech is as sweet as honey; truthful speech is
beautiful, like a flower; and wrong speech is unwholesome, like
filth." So let us try, for our own good and the good of others, to
cultivate right speech--namely, respect both for truth and for the welfare
of others.
The next part of the Noble Eightfold Path that falls
into the category of morality is right action. Right action implies (a)
respect for life, (b) respect for property, and (c) respect for personal
relationships. You will recall what I said a moment ago about life being
dear to all. It is said in the Dhammapada that all living beings tremble
at the prospect of punishment, all fear death, and all love life. Hence,
again keeping in mind the principles of equality and reciprocity, we ought
not to kill living beings. You might be ready to accept this for human
beings but demure with regard to some other living creatures. Here,
however, some of the developments in recent years in the fields of science
and technology ought to give the most skeptical freethinker food for
thought. For instance, when we destroy a particular strain of insect, are
we absolutely certain of accomplishing the greatest, long-term good of
all, or do we, more often than not, instead contribute unwittingly to an
imbalance in the ecosystem that will create even greater problems in the
future?
Respect for property means not to rob, steal from, or
cheat others. This is important because those who take what is not given
by force, stealth, or treachery are guilty of breaking this precept. The
employer who does not pay his employee an honest wage, commensurate with
the work performed, is guilty of taking what is not given; the employee
who collects his salary but shirks his duties is equally guilty of lack of
respect for property.
Finally, respect for personal relationships means,
first of all, to avoid sexual misconduct. Put most simply, it means
avoiding adultery. Beyond that, it means avoiding sexual liaisons with
people who are liable to be harmed by such relations. More generally, it
means avoiding abuse of the senses. You can easily see how, if these
guidelines are followed in a given community, such a community will be a
better place in which to live.
Right livelihood is the third step of the Noble
Eightfold Path included in the way of practice of morality. Right
livelihood is an extension of the rules of right action to our roles as
breadwinners in society. We have just seen that, in the cases of right
speech and right action, the underlying values are respect for truth, for
the welfare of others, and for life, property, and personal relationships.
Right livelihood means earning a living in a way that does not violate
these basic moral values.
Five kinds of livelihood are discouraged for Buddhists:
trading in animals for slaughter, slaves, arms, poisons, and intoxicants
(drugs and alcohol). These five are not recommended because they
contribute to the ills of society and violate the values of respect for
life and for the welfare of others. Dealing in animals for slaughter
violates the value of respect for life. Dealing in slaves violates both
respect for life and right action in personal relationships. Dealing in
arms also violates the value of respect for life, while dealing in poisons
or intoxicants also does not respect the lives and welfare of others. All
these trades contribute to insecurity, discord, and suffering in the
world.
How does the practice of good conduct, or morality,
work? We have said that, in the context of society at large, following the
rules of good conduct creates a social environment characterized by
harmony and peace. All our social goals can be achieved within the rules
of good conduct based on the fundamental principles of equality and
reciprocity. In addition, each person benefits from the practice of good
conduct. In one of his discourses, the Buddha said that someone who has
observed respect for life and so forth feels like a king, duly crowned and
with his enemies subdued. Such a person feels at peace and at ease.
The practice of morality creates an inner sense of
tranquillity, stability, security, and strength. Once you have created
that inner peace, you can successfully follow the other steps of the path.
You can cultivate and perfect the various aspects of mental development.
You can then achieve wisdom--but only after you have created the necessary
foundation of morality both within and without, both in yourself and in
your relationships with others.
Very briefly, these are the origin, contents, and goal
of good conduct in Buddhism. There is just one more point I would like to
make before concluding our review of Buddhist morality. When people
consider the rules of good conduct, they often think, "How can we
possibly follow them?" It seems to be terribly difficult to observe
the precepts. For instance, even the prohibition against taking life,
which is the most fundamental, appears very difficult to follow
absolutely. Every day, as you clean the kitchen or putter about the
garden, you are very likely to kill some insect that happens to get in
your way. Also, it appears very difficult even to avoid lying in all
cases. How are we to deal with this problem, which is a genuine one?
The point is not whether we can observe all the rules
of morality all the time. Rather, the point is that, if the rules of
morality are well founded (i.e., if the principles of equality and
reciprocity are worth believing in, and if the rules of morality are an
appropriate way of enacting them), then it is our duty to follow these
rules as much as we possibly can. This is not to say that we will be able
to follow them absolutely, but only that we ought to do our best to follow
the way of practice indicated by the rules of good conduct. If we want to
live at peace with ourselves and others, then we ought to respect the life
and welfare of others, their property, and so on. If a situation arises in
which we find ourselves unable to apply a particular rule, that is not the
fault of the rule, but simply an indication of the gap between our own
practice of morality and the ideal practice of it.
When, in ancient times, seafarers navigated their ships
across the great oceans with the aid of the stars, they were not able to
follow exactly the course indicated by those heavenly bodies. Yet the
stars were their guides, and by following them, however approximately,
mariners reached their destination. In the same way, when we follow the
rules of good conduct, we do not pretend that we can observe all of them
all the time. This is why the five precepts are called "training
precepts"; it is also why we renew them again and again. What we have
in the rules of good conduct is a framework through which we can try to
live in accord with the two fundamental principles that illuminate the
teaching of the Buddha: the principle of the equality of all living
beings, and the principle of reciprocal respect.
-oOo-
[Taken from Peter Della Santina., The Tree of
Enlightenment. (Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational
Foundation, 1997), pp. 47-55].
Source : www.buddhismtoday.com
Update : 01-12-2001
