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Buddhist Psychology


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The Concept of Personality Revealed
Through The Pancanikaya

Ven. Thich Chon-Thien

Institute of Buddhist Studies
Saigon, Vietnam, 1995

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Part Four: Pancakkhandhà and Individual Problems

 

IV.1 Chapter 1

Individual Desire

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Mentioning the doubts about the Existence of no-suffering and the desireless way of life, a thought arises in the author’s mind that: just as questions about the Earth and the estimates made by a fish sound very strange to a person, it is so for the questions and estimates made by a person who has not experienced the operation of wisdom and the desireless way of life. That thought reminds him of the search for the truth of desire for things but not for the reasonable answers to those doubts

Lord Buddha’s teaching regards only the truth of suffering (dukkha), the cause of suffering that is desire for sensuality, existence and non-existence (samudaya), the extinction of suffering (nirodha) and the way to the extinction of suffering (magga) as what He taught in His first discourse of "Turning the Wheel of Dhamma" at the Deer Park. In this part of the work, the second Noble Truth is discussed.

As introduced in (II.2.2.), in the beginning, the first people existed were those came into existence from the State of Abhassara Brahmà. They were mind - made, feeding on delight, self luminous, moving through the air, glorious.... No male and female were discriminated. Then, after a short period of time, the greediness of manappeared; then desire for sensuality arose in them. They became more and more greedy, owing to this, their body turned coarser and coarser; the best looking human being was the one who desired for sensuality the least. After that, came the period of time when males developed male sex-organs, females developed female sex-organs, then their passions increased and their body burnt with lust: sexual intercourses appeared. The first intercourses were cursed by the masses; those who made love were thrown dust, ashes, and were not allowed to live together with the masses in villages for two months. When the phenomenon of sexual intercourse became more popular, sexual life were accepted openly by the masses. Human society were formed with its social organization from that time...

The above story about the formation of human society is recorded in the Discourse on "On Knowledge of Beginnings", Dìghanikàya, sutta No 27. It is declared by Lord Buddha Himself through the vision of the Enlightened One. This is reality but not speculation. With regard to that story, sensual and sexual desire is not the basic instinct of human beings: it is but a degradation of human mind when the greediness (lobha) of man is strongly developed by the operation of ignorance (avijjà). Nowadays, sexual desire is being developed so strongly that it becomes a very important need of man, and sexual actions are being commercialized openly. This is a big problem to be discussed.

IV.1.1: SENSUAL DESIRE

Sensual desire belongs to craving, which, as defined in (II.1.2.), includes craving for sense pleasures, for existence and for non-existence, or includes six groups called craving for things seen, for things heard, for odours, for tastes, for things tangible and for ideas. Except the sphere of ideas, the first five spheres are called sensual craving.

In the beginning men enjoyed self-delight, the delight arising in their mind. Sensual pleasures came afterwards and became their need, then their crucial need, then appeared as the meaning of human life which controlled men’s mental activities. Since then, men’s sensual desire turned to be the chief cause of a culture called culture of sensuality. This culture, in its turn, has put strong influences on men’s thoughts and feelings and brought up men’s sensual desire. In another aspect of life, being impermanent, sensual pleasures cannot fulfill men’s strong desire. The more men feel unsatisfied with sensual pleasures and sexual pleasures, the more they thirst for them. Now, men’s sensual and sexual desires together with their culture of sensuality make up a new operation of feeling and thinking and force them to regard sensuality and sexuality as basic instincts without seeing the way out. For this operation, Lord Buddha twenty six centuries ago said:

" Monks, I know of no other single form by which a man’s heart is so enslaved as it is by that of a woman. Monks, a woman’s form obsesses a man’s heart. Monks, I know of no other single sound bywhich a man’s heart is so enslaved as it is by the voice of a woman.Monks, a woman’s voice obsesses a man’s heart. Monks, I know of no other single scent... savour... touch by which a man’s heart is so enslaved as it is by the scent, savour, and touch of a woman. Monks, the scent, savour and touch of a woman obsess a man’s heart.

Monks, I know of no other single form, sound, scent, savour and touch by which a woman’s heart is so enslaved as it is by the form, sound, scent, savour and touch of a man. Monks, a woman’s heart is obsessed by these things". (1)

("N’aham, bhikkhave, annam ekarupam pi samanupassàmi yam evam purisassa cittam pariyàdàya titthati yathayidam, bhikkhave, itthiruùpam.

Itthiruùpam, bhikkhave, purisassa cittam pariyàdàya titthatì ti.

N’aham, bhikkhave, annam ekasaddam pi ... ekagandham pi... ekarasam pi .. ekaphotthabbam pi .. samanupassàmi yam evam purisassa cittam pariyàdàya titthati yathayidam, bhikkhave, itthisaddo (itthigandho, itthiraso, itthiphotthabbam ).

N’aham, bhikkhave, annam ekaruùpam pi... ekasaddam pi ... ekagandham pi ... ekarasam pi ... ekaphotthabbam pi ... samanupassàmi yam evam itthiyà cittam pariyàdàya titthati yathayidam, bhikkhave, purisaruùpam(purisasaddo, purisagandho, purisaraso, purisaphotthabbam ). Purisaruùpam bhikkhave, itthiyà cittam pariyàdàya titthatìti"). (2)

So, females and males are the original causes of sensual and sexual desires of each other. These desires existing in the condition of impermanence, cause their pleasures and sufferings in which nothing sacred or mysterious is present. Human beings from the state of life of no greediness, which is regarded as the wholesome way of life, came to greediness; then from greediness came to sensual and sexual desires which are considered as evil ones. Greediness, as discussed in the operation of Dependent Origination, is the result of the operation of wrong thought - which supposes that a human being has his own self or soul - leading to evil states of mind as Lord Buddha taught:

" Monks, I know not of any other single thing of such power to cause the arising of evil states not yet arisen or the waning of good states already arisen as greediness. In him who is greedy, evil states not yet arisen do arise and good states arisen do wane. Monks, I know not of any other single thing of such power to cause the arising of good states not yet arisen or the waning of evil states already arisen as good states of wanting little". (3)

("N’aham, bhikkhave, annam ekadhammam pi samanupassàmi yena anuppannà và akusalà dhammà uppajjanti uppannà và kusalà dhammà parihàyanti yathayidam, bhikkhave, mahicchatà.

Mahicchassa, bhikkhave, anuppannà c’eva akusalà dhammà uppajjanti uppannà ca kusalà dhammà parihàyantì ti.

N’aham, bhikkhave, annam ekadhammam pi samanupassàmi yena anuppannà và kusalà dhammà uppajjanti uppannà và akusalà dhammà parihàyanti yathayidam, bhikkhave, appicchatà.

Appicchassa, bhikkhave, anuppannà c’eva kusalà dhammà uppajjanti uppannà ca akusalà dhammà parihàyantì ti"). (4)

A person’s thought that every existing thing has its own self means "I am", "I was", "I will be", "I should be", or "May I be", etc. This thought implies the meaning of "craving for existence" therefore Lord Buddha taught there are eighteen thoughts which are haunted by craving concerning the inner self, and eighteen thoughts which are haunted by craving concerning what is eternal to self as follows:

"And of what sort, monks, is craving that ensnares, that floats along, that is far - flung, that clings to one, by which this world is smothered, enveloped, tangled like a ball of thread, covered as with blight, twisted up like a grass - rope, so that it overpasses not the Constant Round (of birth), the Down-fall, the way of woe, the Ruin?

There are eighteen thoughts which are haunted by craving concerning the inner self and eighteen which are haunted by craving concerning what is external to self.Now of what sort are the former?

Monks, when there is the thought: I am, - there come the thoughts: I am in this world: I am thus: I am otherwise: I am not eternal: I am eternal. Should I be: should I be in this world: Should I be thus: Should I be otherwise. May I become: May I become in this world: May I become thus: May I become otherwise. I shall become. I shall become in this world, I shall become thus, I shall become otherwise.

And of what sort, monks, are the eighteen thoughts which are haunted by craving concerning what is external to self?

When there is thought; By this I am, there come the thoughts,

By this, I am in this world, ...

By this, I should be: ...

By this, May I become: ...

By this, I shall become: ..." (5)

("Tanham vo, bhikkhave, desessàmi jàlinimsaritamvisatam visattikam yàya ayam loko uddhasto pariyonadho tantàkulakajàto gulàgundikajàto munjababbajabhuto apàyamduggatim vinipatam samsàram nàtivattati, tam sunàtha sàdhukam manasikarotha bhàsissàmìti. ...

Katamà, ca, bhikkhave, tanhà jàlinì sarità visatà visattikà yàya ayam loko uddhasto pariyonaddhotantàkulakajàto gulàgundikajàto.. nàtivattati?

Atthàrasa kho pan’ imàni, bhikkhave, tanhàvicaritàni ajjhatikassa upàdàya, attharasa tanhàvicaritàni bàhirassa upàdàya.

Katatamàni attharasa tanhàvicaritàni ajjhattikassa upàdàya.

Asmìti, bhikkhave, sati, itthasmìti hoti, evasmìti hoti, annathasmìti hoti, asasmìti hoti, satasmìti hoti, santi hoti..., api ha santi hoti, ... bhavissanti hoti, ...

Katamàni atthàrasa tanhàvicaritaàni bàhirassa upàdàya. Iminà asmìti, bhikkhave, sati, ... iminà santi hoti, ... iminà api ha santi hoti, ... iminà bhavissanti hoti, ...".) (6)

From the above teaching, a person’s thought is but self thought which is haunted by craving, and is operating as craving. So he is regarded as craving from which sensual and sexual desires arise. On the one hand, the person considers his desire himself and is dipped in the desire and suffering, on the other hand, Lord Buddha shows that that desire is not He, is not his, and is not his self: he should leave it for peace of mind and happiness. The abandonment of desire may happen immediately and effectively, or happen through a process. In the case of abandonment process, the person should know which sensual desire to be responded to, and how much of its requirement to be responded. In doing thus, he can control his mind from being embued with worries, and recognize clearly that the fulfilment of his sensual desire and his happiness are two separate things. With this attitude of life he enters into daily life and faces to the objects of sensual desire with a great care.

For things seen, such as forms, sights, cars, houses, clothes, ..., and even money, he cannot keep desiring for, because they are so attractive and necessary to him. Facing those things is facing two aspects of their existence: One is their satisfaction, another is their danger caused by impermanence which will lead him to suffering.

For things heard, such as music, the voice and sound of his opposite sex..., they may allure him and make him lose his self - control to fall into troubles. These things also have two faces; one is their satisfaction, another is their danger caused by the change which will bring him unsatisfaction

For good smells, good tastes and touches, they also are very attractive: They may give him their satisfaction that makes his mind burnt with thirst for pleasures: This is one side, the other side is their danger caused by their change and transcience that will lead him to sorrows, pain, lamentation, grief and woes.

According to the teaching of Lord Buddha, understanding an existing thing means understanding its satisfaction, its danger and the way to come out of its bond. So, understanding sensual desire is understanding the satisfaction of form, sound, smell, taste, and touch of males and females, their danger, and the way to come out of one’s attachment to them which is the Eightfold Noble Path led by "right view" and "right thought". It is not the problem to come to some definition of sensual desire or to fulfill one’s sensual desire.

Among sensual desires, sexual desires are the strongest that need to be discussed separately.

IV. 1.2. SEXUAL DESIRE

With regard to the story on "On Knowledge of Beginnings" (Aggannasuttam) as mentioned, sexual desire is but human beings’ greediness developed at its high level. This greediness influences strongly on men’s mental, oral and bodily activities which are called volitional actions (or Kamma). It is grasped by the intention (or volition) of a person, so it may be controlled or destroyed by that intention. For a Buddhist monk whose intention is to realize a Brahmacariya life sexual desire is being abandoned thoroughly. For a Buddhist layman or laywoman, whose intention is to live a family life in sexual pleasure, sexual desire is available, except sexual misconduct, as the following teaching says:

" What are the four defilements of action that are abandoned? Taking life is one, taking what is not given is one, sexual misconduct is one, lying speech is one. These are the four defilements of action that he abandons. Thus Lord Buddha spoke". (7)

(" Katam’ assa cattàro kamma-kilesà pahìnà honti? Pànàtipàto kho, gahapati-putta, kamma-kileso, adinnàdànam kamma-kileso, kàmesu micchàcàro kamma-kileso, musàvàdo kamma-kileso. Imassa cattàro kamma- kilesà pahìnà hontì ti. Idamavoca Bhagavà".) (8)

Regardless of living a Brahmacariya life or a family life, a Buddhist should realize the truth of sexual desire to deal with it . It is a desire of a very sweet feeling caused by a touch of sex - organs, so it belongs to the operation of "ignorance" leading to suffering. In other words, to the regard of wisdom it is suffering. No mystery exists in it, except "ignorance". The change of life and of the sex itself is its aspect of danger, including some terrifying problems caused by it. The way to come out of its dangers is to come to the regard of wisdom and the operation of wisdom. Understanding sexual desire is such a regard of wisdom to be brought up. A person’s regard to sexual problems and sexual desires is very important. From this regard his psychological reactions and his behaviours towards them arise: enjoying them? Controlling them? or abandoning them? and how? - So, one’s behaviours towards sexual problems are not the "I", the "Mine" or the "My self". They are not either any major part of what is called personality at all. They exist as a dream which is present when ignorance is present, and absent from man’s life when ignorance is absent.

IV.1.3: DESIRE FOR EXISTENCE

For those who are tired of desire for sensual pleasures, they come to the desire for existence called rupatanhà or bhavatanhà in Pàli. This is a higher and more delicate level of desire, i.e., desire for a state of mind abiding in the First Meditation (Jhàna), the Second Meditation, the Third or the Fourth Meditation. In thefirst meditation, their mind abides in initial thought (vitakka), sustained thought (vicàra), rapture (pìti), joy (sukha) and one - pointedness of mind (ekaggatà); In the second one, their mind abides in rapture, joy and one pointedness of mind; in the third one, in joy and one pointedness of mind, and in the fourth, in one-pointedness of mind.

When engaging in sensual pleasures, a person wishes that may the object causing his feeling of pleasure be permanent: this is a manifestation of "desire for existence".

Such is the arising or existing of "desire for existence"! Such is the satisfaction of "desire for existence!"

Impermanence is the aspect of suffering "desire for existence" and "right view", "right thought" which sees the truth of all above mentioned things open the way to come out of their bonds. Meditative thoughts are only mental activities belonging to aggregate of activities which is suffering, therefore a number of human beings may leave "desire for existence" for "desire for non - existence".

IV.1.4. DESIRE FOR NON-EXISTENCE

Those who are tired of sensual desire and desire for existence tend to come to desire for non - existence or annihilation, because for them if existence is suffering, non - existence, in their belief, will be happy. And, psychologically when a person is tired of existence, he automatically thirsts for non-existence or annihilation.

In reality, desire for anything is but a desire belonging to the aggregate of activities, and so it will leada person to suffering of some state in the Round of Rebirth - That state of mind is appropriate to Aruàpa states.

The satisfaction, the danger and the "way out" of the activities aggregate are those of "desire for non - existence", of course.

In short, desire is the root cause of suffering, and it itself is suffering as Lord Buddha declared in the Discourse on "The Analysis of the Truths" (Saccavibhangasuttam) of the Middle Length Sayings:

" And what, your reverences, is the Ariyan truth of the arising of anguish? Whatever craving is connected with again - becoming, accompanied by delight and attachment, finding delight in this and that, namely the craving for sense pleasures, the craving for becoming, the craving for annihilation - This, your reverences, is called the Ariyan truth of the arising of anguish" (9)

("Katamanc’àvuso, dukkhasamudayam ariyasaccam? Yàyam tanhà ponobhavikà nandiràgasahagatà tatra tatràbhinandìni, seyyàthìdam : kàmatanhà, bhavatanhà vibhavatanhà idam vuccat’ àvuso, dukkhasamudayam ariyasaccam".) (10)

Wherefore? - As the writer discussed in "the operation of Dependent Origination", no desire can exist by itself: its existence is but the existence of the twelve causes of Dependent Origination: This means suffering, sorrow, grief, lamentation, etc. already exist in it: or, suffering, sorrow, grief, lamentation, ..., and ignorance have made it up.

Moreover, "desire" always require the presence of the subject and object of desire: the subject really is the five aggregates, and the object also is the five aggregates which mean suffering as discussed in "the operation of the five aggregates". If a person understands the operation of aggregates, he will at the same time understand the truth of "desire", regardless of desire for whatever. He may come to the following conclusion for himself; the subject of desire is something empty and impermanent; the object of desire also is something empty and impermanent, so desire for whatever thing means an emptiness desires for emptiness, or impermanence desires for impermanence: this has nothing to do with him at all. In realizing that thing, he really comprehends what desire is, and sees the way to come out of its bonds. This truth can be seen by practising Insight (vipassana): in this case the practician sees with wisdom the selflessness or emptiness of the five aggregates; from this seeing, desireless thought arises in him together with thought of liberation. Through this experience, he realizes that desire does not exist in seeing the things with wisdom; it exists only in regards to things dominated by ignorance.

Such is desire.

IV.1.5. REGARD OF WISDOM

The grasping of the five aggregates arises from the regard of the perception of selfness. This regard is the original cause of psychological reactions of a man towards things. When a person regards good - looking forms, his craving for them arises; when he regards bad – looking forms, his discontent thought arises; when he regards normal forms, his illusion exists. All the above thought of craving, ill-will and illusion are the causes of his immediate troubles.

Similarly, when a person thinks of things, his thinking is considered as his regard to things: this regard is done by his thought and influences strongly on his mind. Let us observe the fact that a person is given a blow at his face, he feels painful physically in a minute, but his thought of that blow causes him to feel much more painful mentally. In the case of a person’s partner turned unfaithful to him, he will feel so painful emotionally. So, for him, controlling his regard to things will be much better than controlling his psychological reactions. This interesting experience was taught several times by Lord Buddha in different teachings, especially in the doctrine of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (satipathàna). This doctrine requires the practician to follow and just observe his breathing - in and breathing - out, his feelings, his thoughts and his mental objects (or the five aggregates, the five hindrances, the Seven Factors of Enlightenment).

For breathing - in and breathing - out, in observing and following them again and again, he will see directly what is called breathing - in or breathing - out is but the movement of his thought, his lung and a current of air. It is empty. And he also sees what is called a man is but mental processes and physical processes joining each other. There is no entity called the "I", the "Mine" or the "my Self", all is empty. Seeing this, the practician becomesfree from craving for them and experiences the peaceful state of mind regardless of the conception of what a man really is.

For feelings, in observing and following them again and again, he will see similarly: What is called a feeling also is but mental and physical processes: it is selfless. Nothing called the "I", the "Mine", or the "my Self" exists. Seeing this, he becomes tired with feeling, and becomes free from it. His thought abides in rapture, joy and peace then, regardless of any question about what happiness is, and of any answer to it.

For thoughts, in observing and following them again and again, he will see plainly what is called thought appraising thing and creating values of things is but conditioned and empty. If breathing - in or breathing - out stops working by any reason, thoughts disappear, and a person’s life and his cherished dreams of life turn senseless. Realizing this, he desires nothing: worries disappear and peace of mind appear, regardless of any point of view on life: nihilism or not nihilism.

For mental objects, the practician with his peaceful mind analyses them and sees their emptiness: they themselves show their truth of selflessness, impermanence and suffering. In seeing that with Insight, he becomes detached from things, and starts the steps of destroying ten fetters for deep vision.

The above practice of regard of wisdom is Called "vipassana", in Pàli term, which means seeing things directly by intuition, or obtaining inward vision or spiritual insight (11).

That regard of insight may be trained in another way:

"Look upon the world as you would on a bubble,
Look upon it as you would on a mirage,
The King of death does not see him |
Who thus looks down upon the world" (12) Dhp. 170

"Evam lokam avekkhantam maccurajà na passati.
Yathà bubbuàlakam passe, yathà passe marìcikam" (13)

Or it is trained as the following teaching shows:

" He who knows that this body is like froth,
And has learnt that it is as unsubstantial as a mirage,
Will break the flower- pointed arrow of Màra,
And never see the King of death". (14) (Dhp. 46)

("Phenupamam kàyamimam viditvà
Marìcidhammam abhisambudhàno
Chettvàna màrassa papupphakàni
Adassanam maccuràjassa gacche".) (15)

The above verses imply similar senses that:

- regarding things as transcience, impermanence, and selflessness will help the practician calm down his fire of desire until the moment it is extinguished completely.

- regarding his own body in the same way, the practician will realize nothing called the "I", the "Mine" or the "my Self" exists and will desire for nothing.

The above regard going with wisdom will break the operation of ignorance leading to birth - and - death: This is the meaning of "the King of death does not see him". It must be cultivated day after day without a break as Lord Buddha said:

" ... Consider some person who abides seeing impermanence in all compounded things, conscious of it, aware of it at all times continually, without a break, marking it mentally, fathoming it by wisdom; and destroying the cankers, he enters and abides in the cankerless mind - emancipation...; this, monks, is the first gift - worthy person.

Consider some person who abides seeing ill in all compounded things...; seeing no - self in all things..., seeing happiness in the cool, conscious of it, aware of it, at all times...; this, monks, is the first gift - worthy person". (16)

(" Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo sabbasankhàresu aniccànupassì viharati aniccasannì anicca - patisamvedì satatam samitam abbokinnam cetasà adhimuccamàno pannàya pariyogàhamàno. So àsavànam khayà... pe... Ayam, bhikkhave, pathamo puggalo àhuneyyo pàhuneyyo dakkhineyyo anjalikaranìyo anuttaram punnakkhettamlokassa..... Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo sabbasankhàresu dukkhànupassì viharati... pe... sabbesu dhammesu anattànupassì viharati... nibbàne sukhànupassì viharati, sukhàsannì sukhapati samvedì satatam samitam... So àsavànam khàyà... pe... Ayam, bhikkhave, pathamo puggalo àhuneyyo... pe... anuttaram punnakkhettam lokassa".) (17)

Praising the person seeing suffering, impermanence and selflessness in all compounded things means praising his regard to things which causes the destruction of all sufferings. That is his regard of wisdom seeing things as they really are.

In the here-and-now, everybody is completely free to be the master of his regard to things, to be the master of the train running to the station of peace and happiness. It is that regard of wisdom which is what human beings are expecting, because it shows the truth of the world, happiness of human beings, and brings to light all mysteries in life.

However, for worldly people, their regards are always hindered by the five hindrances (restlessness, torpor, desire, ill-will and doubt) and a lot of evil thoughts, such as self-pride, jealousy, anger, worry etc., Which are governed by self-thought and self-perception. At this stage of mind, the practician needs to practise bare-attention with which he is just aware of what the things really are without any psychological intervention.

At a higher stage of mind, a worldly man’s regard works together with his meditative thoughts and wisdom, so his regard then is called the regard of clear vision, clear insight or wisdom which can see the truth of man and life regardless of any conception of personality or reality.

So here emerges the problem of seeing existing things as they really are by the regard of wisdom instead of the search for any theory of personality or any conception of reality.

Together with the above regard to things, a number of Buddhist spirits of individualized education are necessary to be introduced in the next chapter.

REFERENCES:

(1) : Gradual Sayings, Vol. I, PTS, London, 1989, pp. 1-2.
(2) : Anguttara-Nikàya,Vol. I, PTS, London, 1961, p. 1.
(3) : Gradual Sayings, Vol. I,..., pp. 9-10.
(4) : Anguttara-Nikàya, Vol. I,..., p. 12.
(5) : Gradual Sayings, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1992, p. 225.
(6) : Anguttara-Nikàya, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1955, pp. 211-212.
(7) : "The Discourse on Singàlovàda", tr. by Maurice Walshe,..., p.462.
(8) : "Sinigàlovada-Sutta", Digh-Nikàya, Vol. III, PTS, London, p.181.
(9) : "Analysis of The Truths", Middle Length Sayings, Vol. III, PTS, London, 1990, p. 298.
(10) : "Saccavibhanga-Sutta", Majjhima-Nikàya, Vol. III, PTS, London, 1977, pp. 250-251.
(11) : "Pàli-English Dictionary", T.W. Rhys Davids & William Stede, PTS, London, 1989, p. 627.
(12) : Dhammapada, tr.by F.Max Muller,..,verse 170.
(13) : Dhammapada, Devanàgari, Delhi Uni.,..., verse 170
(14) : Dhammapada, tr.by F. Max Muller,..,verse 46.
(15) : Dhammapada, Devanàgari, Delhi Uni.,..., verse 46.
(16) : Gradual Sayings, Vol. IV, PTS, London, 1989, p. 9.
(17) : Anguttara-Nikàya, Vol. IV, PTS, London, 1958, pp. 13-14.

 

 

IV.2 Chapter 2

The Five Aggregates and Individualized Education

-ooOoo-

As discussed in (IV. 1.5), training a man for his regard of wisdom requires various spirits of education very human, practical and realistic, although such a theory of personality as usual is not available here.

IV.2.1: INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION

With regard to individual differences in the spheres of physics, psychology, spirituality, social class and capacity, individualized education is needed in schools of modern time. Lord Buddha was the one who taught people on the basis of spirits of individualized education in response to various temperaments of men: Precepts (or Sìla) applied for lay people are different from those applied for monks and nuns. Speeches used to teach dhamma to worldly persons are different from those used to teach the learned.

In Kindred Sayings, Vol. V, PTS, 1990, pp. 364-365, it is recorded that:

" Monks, the Aryan Truth of "This is Ill" has been pointed out by me. Therein are numberless shades and variations of meaning. Numberless are the way of illustrating this Aryan Truth of "This is Ill".

The Aryan Truth of "This is the arising of Ill" has been pointed out by me...

The Aryan Truth of "This is the ceasing of Ill" has been pointed out by me...

The Aryan Truth of "This is the Practice that leads to the ceasing of Ill" has been pointed out by me...". (1)

("Idam dukkham ariyacaccan ti, bhikkhave, mayà pannattam / tattha aparimànà vannà aparimànà vyanjanà aparimànà samkàsanà itipidam dukkham ariyasaccan ti //

Idam dukkhasamudayam // la /

Idam dukkhanirodham // la //

Idam dukkhanirodhagàminì patipadà ariyasaccanti, bhikkhave, mayà pannattam // tattha aparimànà vannà aparimànà vyanjanà aparimànà samkasanà itipidam dukkhani-rodhagàminì patipadà ariyasaccan ti") (2)

When introducing "passion" to peasants or worldly men, Lord Buddha used simple words spoken by them in daily life. He said:

_" As rain breaks through an ill-thatched house,
Passion will break through an unflecting mind". (3) (Dhp. 13)

*("Yathà agàram ducchannam vutthi samativijjhati
Evam abhàvitam cittam ràgo samativijjhati).(4) (Dhp. 93)

_" As rain does not break through a well- thatched house,
Passion will not break through a well- reflectingmind." (5) (Dhp. 14)

*("Yathà agàram succhannam vutthi na samativijjhati,
Evam subhàvitam cittam ràgo na samativijjhati".) (6)

The picture of an ill-thatched and well-thatched house is very close to the peasants: it will be very easy for them to understand what Lord Buddha means.

For the learned lay people or monks, Lord Buddha used the language spoken by them, such as:

"The eye of a man, brethren, is the ocean. Its impulse is made of objects (or forms). Whoso endureth that object-made impulse, of him, brethren, it is said, "he hath crossed over that ocean of the eye, with its waves and whirlpools, its sharks and demons, the brahmin hath crossed and gone beyond. He standeth on dry ground.

The tongue of a man, brethren, is the ocean... The ear... The nose... The mind... " (7)

("Cakkhu, bhikkhave, purisassa samuddo tassa ruùpamayo vego // yo tam ruùpamayam vegam sahati ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, atari cakkhusamuddasmim sàvattam sagàham sarakkhasam tinno pàragato thale titthati bràhmano // la // Jivhà, bkikkhave, purisassa... // ... // Mano, bhikkhave, purisassa samuddo... //") (8)

Or such as:

" .. Brethren, the all is on fire. What all, brethren, is on fire? The eye, brethren, is on fire, objects areon fire, eye-consciousness is on fire, eye-contact... that also on fire. On fire with what? - On fire with the blaze of lust, the blaze of ill-will, of infatuation, birth, decay, death, sorrow, etc. So I declare? (9)

("Sabbam, bhikkhave, àdittam, // Kinca, bhikkhave sabbam àdittam // Cakkhum, bhikkhave, àdittam // ruùpà àdittà // cakkhu vinnànam àdittam // Cakkhusamphasso àditto // yam pidam cakkhusamphassapaccayà uppajjati vedayitam sukham và dukham và adukkhamasukham và // tam pi àdittam // Kena àdittam // Ràgagginà dosagginà mohagginà àdittam// Jàtiyà jaràya maranena sokehi paridevehi dukkhehi domanassehi upàyàsehi àdittanti vadàmi // pe //

Jivhà àdittà //...// rasà... // Jivhàvinnànam... //... Mano àditto dhammà àdittà manovinnànam àdittam...//") (10)

This language sounds very philosophical and thoughtful. It may keep a deep attention of the learned.

All the above examples imply the same doctrine of wisdom, although they are spoken in different languages. This is the meaning of the expression that: "Lord Buddha taught His wonderful Dhamma in different ways to different groups of listeners"

In Khuddakanikàya, the stories about Therà and Therì were recorded that : Lord Buddha did teach them in different ways to destroy their fetters. This says themeaning of individualized education: each person has his own Kamma, and so he needs a separate way to deal with that Kamma. In other words, each individual thinks with his own mind and goes with his own legs.

Self-responsibility:

A system of individualized education demands educational spirits of self-responsibility, self-confidence, self-support, self-control. self-acceptance, self-awareness, etc... Without them, it cannot work.

For self-responsibility, Lord Buddha did ask people not to depend on Him or on any external power. He taught:

" Self is the lord of self, who else could be the lord? With self well subdued, a man finds a lord such as few can find" (11) (Dhp. 160)

("Attà hi attano nàtho ko hi nàtho paro siyà, Attano'va sudantena nàtham labhati dullabham.") (12)

And:

" Make thyself an island, work hard, be wise! When thy impurities are blown away, and thou art free from guilt, thou wilt enter into the heavenly world of the Ariyans" (13) (Dhp. 236)

("So karohi dìpamattano khippam vàyama pandito bhava,Niddhantamalo anangano dibbam ariyabhuùmimehisi") (14)

Or:

" All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought, pain follows him as the wheel follows the foot of the ox that draws the carriage". (15) (Dhp. 1.)

("Manopubbangamà dhammà manosetthà manamayà, Manasà ce padutthena bhàsati và karoti và, Tato nam dukkhamanveti cakkam va vahato padam".) (16) (Dhp. .1)

Dhammapada, Verse No 2, says similarly: if a man acts or speaks with a pure thought, happiness follows him like his shadow that never leaves him.

All the above teachings imply the emphasis on the spirit of self-responsibility. Without it, the law of Kamma does not work, and Buddhism has nothing to do with human beings. Without it, no system of social law could be implemented, and human society immediately falls into disturbances. Without it, no system of education can be formed either. Self-responsibility is therefore one of the root spirits of Buddhist education as well as non - Buddhist education.

It should be noted here that: Lord Buddha taught the truth of selflessness of every existing thing on the one hand, and asked a person to regard things as not "he", not "his" and not "his self" so that he can abandon craving and grasping - the causes of his suffering, on the other hand. He taught the self-spirits of education so that the person himself can develop his capacities for his liberation and happiness. No contradiction exists therein. This is the only way for him to achieve his purpose of life: wisdom and happiness, and to achieve the truth of selflessness: the ultimate Noble Truth, because the other self-perception ways having been tested by human beings just cannot resolve their fateful suffering.

That spirit of self-responsibility therefore helps a person get out of the phenomenon of alienation and really proves that the non-self-perception way of life is extremely close to individuals and human society.

Self-confidence:

Besides self-responsibility, the practice of wisdom regard asks the practician to have self-confidence being sure that with his own effort he can realize truth and happiness in the here - and - now.

The meaning of taking refuge in oneself, as Lord Buddha taught above, is the meaning of self-confidence.

The fact Lord Buddha declared in the Assembly of Sangha the attainment of Arahantship of those who got it implies the encouragement of self-confidence and the awakening of self-confidence in those who had not attained the highest Sainthood. This will help them improve their self-control shaken by a lack of self-confidence. Lord Buddha said:

" If a man's faith is unsteady, if he does not know the true law, if his peace of mind is troubled, his knowledge will never be perfect." (17)

("Anavattathitacittassa, saddhammam avijànato, Pariplavapasàdassa pannà na paripurati." ) (18)

When the Kàlàmas wavered among various points of view of non-Buddhist masters, they came to Lord Buddha for advice, Lord Buddha spoke:

" Now look you, Kàlàmas. Be ye not misled by report or tradition or hearsay be not misled by proficiency in the collections, nor by mere logic or inference, nor after considering reasons, nor after reflection on and approval of some theory, nor because it fits becoming, nor out of respect for a recluse (who holds it). But, Kàlàmas, when you know for yourselves: these things are unprofitable, these things are blameworthy, these things are censured by the intelligent; these things, when performed and undertaken, conduce to loss and sorrow, then indeed do ye reject them, Kàlàmas." (19)

("Alam hi vo, Kàlàmà, kankhitum alam vicikicchitum. Kankhàniye va pana vo thàne vicikicchà uppannà.

Etha tumhe, Kàlàmà, mà anussavena mà paramparàya mà iti kiràya mà pitakasampadànena mà ditthinijjhànakkhantiyà mà bhavyaruùpatàya mà samano no garu ti, yadà tumhe, Kàlàmà, attanà va jàneyyàtha- ime dhammà akusalà ime dhammà sàvajjà ime dhammà vinnugarahità ime dhammà samattà samàdinnà ahitàya dukkhàya samvattantì ti atha tumhe, Kàlàma, pajaheyyàtha.") (20)

The above teaching is but a guidance suggesting the Kàlàmas to turn back to their true experience of life and to be confident in themselves.

Indeed, in daily life, a person can continue surviving without confidence in others, but without self-confidence he cannot survive; otherwise, he exists as a body without soul.

In a religious life, every task done for liberation, the release of suffering, requires the presence of right view, right thought and right effort which never lack of self-confidence. A stream Enterer (sotagami), the first fruit (phala) of Sainthood, is defined as the one who has unshaken confidence in Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha and sìla (precepts), so he must have confidence in himself and his effort.

The fact that Lord Buddha enlightened in this life through His own effort has a meaning of establishing self-confidence for human beings: with his own effort, a human being can attain what Lord Buddha attained under the Bodhi-tree. And, even the Noble Truth of Dependent Origination Lord Buddha realized gives individuals a confidence that a man's suffering and ignorance are conditioned: they are unreal and may be changed if he has right thoughts and actions.

The above statements all imply the meaning of establishing self- confidence.

Self-awareness:

With self-responsibility and self-confidence, a person starts practising his regard of wisdom to extinguish his troubles. The regard asks him to be aware of existing things around him without attachment to them. So, from his observing and analysing things his awareness isreinforced: this is the existence of self-awareness.

In the course of his practice of the mentioned regard, he will see the impermanence, egolessness and suffering of the five aggregates. This seeing is meant his self-awareness which helps him detach from his desire for impermanent things and his troubles. When this practice is cultivated again and again; his "self-awareness" will be at a level called wisdom (pannà). In other words, in worldly men, self-awareness really is "right view" and "right thought"; in meditations, it is called medetative vision; and in Saints, it is called wisdom or perfect wisdom.

On the basis of awareness, the practician develops his "self-control" of Activities aggregate (meaning controlling his mind, his speech and his body) and his task of the blowing off his impurities as Lord Buddha said:

" The wise who control their body, who control their tongue, the wise who control their mind, are indeed well controlled." (21) (Dhp. 234)

("Kàyena samvutà dhìrà atho vacàya samvutà,
Manasà samvutà dhìrà te ve suparisamvutà") (22)

" The disciples of Gotama are always well awake, and their mind day and night always delights in compassion." (23) (Dhp. 300)

("Suppabuddham pabujjhanti sadà Gotamasàvakà,
Yesam divà ca ratto ca ahimsàya rato mano.") (24) (Dhp. 300)

" The disciples of Gotama are always well awake, and their mind day and night always delights in meditation." (25) (Dhp. 301)

("Suppabuddham pabujjhanti sadà Gotamasàvakà,
Yesam divà ca ratto ca bhàvanàya rato mano.") (26)

Self-awareness is the soul of a person's regard of wisdom indeed: it is the start and also the destination of that regard. In other words, self-awareness is the first and last purpose of practising Dhamma.

It is this which is the object of the search for truth of man, but not any nature of personality.

Self-acceptance:

In the case a person's awareness is not strong enough or is absent from his regard to things, especially his regard to the inside parts of his five aggregates, his wrong view and thought, as of his kamma, arise in his mind and lead him to wrong deeds and to troubles. This is the time when he becomes unsatisfied with himself: his body, his descent, knowledge or social position, etc. So, for preventing the arising of wrong thoughts and deeds in that case, the person should learn to accept what he is and what he has. This is the meaning of self-acceptance.

For his body, a person always wishes for a good looking form with beautiful face, complexion, etc. If his body appears not good looking as what he wants, he feels so painful. For his descent, if he was born in a family of low caste, he feels terribly disappointed. For his knowledge and social position, if he does not have high knowledge and high rank to be admired or respected, he may feel so sad... In addition to those things, hornours, praises, advantages,.., may cause him shaking. Therefore, Lord Buddha declared:

"Monks, these eight worldly conditions obsess the world; the world revolves round these eight worldly conditions. What eights?- Gain and loss, fame and obscurity, blame and praise, contentment and pain. Monks, these eight worldly conditions obsess the world, the world revolves round these eight conditions..." (27)

("Atth'ime, bhikkhave, lokadhammà lokam anuparivattanti, loko ca attha lokadhamme anuparivattati Katame attha?

Làbho ca alàbho ca yaso ca ayaso ca nindà ca pasamsà ca sukhanca dukkhanca. Ime kho, bhikkhave, attha lokadhammà lokam anuparivattanti, loko ca ime attha lokadhamme anuparivattatì ti.") (28)

The above worldly conditions are impermanent. Even when a person gets "gain, fame, praise and contentment" his fear of change may cause his mind agitated and worried. So, to keep his mind in peace he must know how to accept what he is. Otherwise, the worldly conditions will happen to him as a strong wind blowing and striking at the root of his meditation tree and causing disaster in his mind.

Spirit of Practicalness

A person's trouble may be caused by his wrong thought of things: he thinks of things that should not bethought of, or does not think of things to be thought of as the following teaching mentions:

" The past should not be followed after, the future not desired. What is past is got rid of and the furure has not come. But whoever has vision now here, now there, of a present thing, knowing that it is immovable, unshakable, let him cultivate it. Swelter at the task this very day. Who knows whether he will die tomorrow?

There is no bargaining with the great hosts of Death. Thus abiding ardently, unwearied day and night, He indeed is "Auspicious" called, decribed as a sage at peace." (29)

(" Atìtam nànvàgameyya, nappatikankhe anàgatam Yad atìtam pahìnan tam, appattanca anàgatam. Paccupannan ca yo dhammam, tattha tattha vipassati, Asamhìram asamkuppam,tam vidvà manubruhaye. Ajj'eva kiccam àtappam; ko jannà maranam suve? Na hi no samgaran tena, mahàsenena maccunà. Evam vihàrim àtàpim, ahorattam atanditam Tam ve bhaddekaratto ti, santo àcikkhate munìti.") (30)

The discourse on "Bhaddekaratta" explained the meaning implied in the above teaching. With regard to this discourse, a person thinks of his material shape in the past, thinks of his feeling, his perception, his activities, his conciousness in the past, and delights therein: this is the meaning of following after the past that should not be done.

The person thinks of his future and a thought arises in his mind that: "may my body, my feeling, my perception, my activities, my consciousness be thus in the future" and he delights therein: this is the meaning of desiring future that should not be done.

As to the present things, he should regard his body, his feeling, his perception, his activities, his consciousness as not his self, or self not having them, or they are not in the self, or the self not in them: this is the meaning of having vision of persent things he should practise day after day.

So, the above teaching really shows individuals the practical way to live in peace of mind: if a person practises it one day, he will be a sage at peace in one day; if he practises it day after day, he may become a true sage, who completely destroys the cause of all troubles and sufferings, and abides in happiness for good.

In the case of a worldly man who just can practise it partly, he may reduce his immediate troubles to the least, and save a lot of energy for use for his jobs.

In the author's opinion, following after the past or desiring the future is living with the image of reality, but not living in reality; this is an unrealistic and unpractical way of life. Living in the very present moment is living a true life which can help a man see things as they really are: this is a realistic and practical way to live: this also is the meaning of the spirit of practicalness taught by Lord Buddha.

Spirit of middle way:

Another spirit of education taught by Lord Buddha to help individuals avoid two extremes of life for vision, knowledge and calm is the spirit of middle way. In His first discourse of Noble Truths He said:

"Monks, these two extremes should not be followed by one who has gone forth as a wanderer. What two?

Devotion to the pleasures of sense, a low practice of villagers, a practice unworthy, unprofitable, the way of the world (on the one hand), and (on the other) devotion to self - mortification, which is painful, unworthy and unprofitable.

By avoiding these two extremes the Tathàgata has gained knowledge of that middle path which giveth vision, which giveth knowledge, which causeth calm, special knowledge, enlightenment, Nibbàna.

And what, monks, is that middle path which giveth vision,.., Nibbàna?

Verily it is this Aryan eightfold way, to wit; right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right living, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. This, monks, is that middle path which giveth vision, which giveth knowledge, which causeth calm, special knowledge, enlightenment, Nibbàna." (31)

("Dve me, bhikkhave, antà pabbajitena na sevittabbà // Katame dve // Yo càyam kàmesu kàmasukhallikànuyogo hìno gammo puthujjanìko anariyo anatthasamhito // yo càyam attakilamathànuyogo dukkho anariyo anatthasamhito // Ete te, bhikkhave, ubho ante anupagamma majjhimà patipadà Tathàgatena abhisambuddhà cakkhukaranì nànakaranì upasamàya abhinnaya sambodhàya nibbànàya samvattati //

Katamà ca, bhikkhave, majjhimà patipadà Tathàgatena abhisambuddhà cakkhukàranì... nibbànàya samvattati // Ayam eva ariyo atthangiko maggo // seyyathìdam // sammàditthi... sammàsamàdhi // Ayam kho sà, bhikkhave, majjhimà patipadà Tathàgatena abhisambuddhà cakkhukaranì nanakaranì upasamàya abhinnàya sambodhàya nibbànàya samvattati // ") (32)

Even to the practice of "right effort", which is the most important task in completing other tasks, the practician should do in time and in the spirit of middle-way. Otherwise, the practice will become unworthy and unprofitable, as Lord Buddha showed:

" At such time, monks, as the mind is sluggish, then is the season for cultivating the limb of wisdom that is norm - investigation,.. energy,.. zest. Why so? Because, monks, the sluggish mind is easily raised up by such conditions."

" At such time, monks, as the mind is elated, then is the wrong season for cultivating the limb of wisdom, that is norm - investigation,.. energy,.. zest. Why so? Because, monks, the elated mind is hard to be calmed by such conditions." (33)

("Yasmim ca kho, bhikkhave, samaye lìnam cittam hoti // kàlo tasmim samaye dhammavicayasamhojjhangassa bhàvanàya kàlo viriyasambojjhangassa bhàvanàya kàlo pìtisambojjhangassa bhàvanàya // Tam kissa hetu // lìnam, bhikkhave, cittam tam etehi dhammehi susamutthàpayam hoti // ...

Yasmim, bhikkhave, samaye uddhatam cittam hoti // akàlo tasmim samaye dhammavicayasambojjhangassa bhàvanàya // akàlo viriya... // akàlo pìti... //

Tam kissa hetu // uddhatam bhikkhave cittam tam etehi dhammehi duvupasamayam hoti //") (34)

The above teaching is excellent advice by Lord Buddha for individuals practising Dhamma. It always requires wisdom (or right view and right thought) to follow a person's mind to know where it is to choose which path is appropriate for the immediate practice - knowing where one's mind also means self - understanding.

Spirit of analysis:

The middle way of practice is also lighted up by other interesting spirits such as analysis, criticism and creativeness.

It must be said that Lord Buddha's method of teaching Dhamma is analysis based on reality. This method is far different from those which are based on pure reasons of soul - theories. The Four Noble Truths preached for the first time at Deer Park, Benares, started from reality: "life is suffering", then analysed in fouraspects: suffering which is birth, old-age, sickness, death, separating from what one likes, being with what one dislikes not getting what one wants, in short, five aggregates are suffering; the cause of suffering which is craving or the arising of Dependent Origination; the cessation of suffering which is Nibbaàna; and the way to the cessation of suffering which is the Eightfold Noble Path.

The doctrine of Dependent Origination, the truth of this world, and the five aggregates making up what is called a man were analysed thoroughly by Lord Buddha.

Analysing the understanding an existing thing, Lord Buddha showed that: a man should know its existence, the cause of its existence, its ceasing, and the way to its ceasing (in many discourses).

For the dhammas which can only be seen directly by perfect wisdom, Lord Buddha advised individuals not to think of them, such as:

" Monks, there are these four unthinkables, not to be thought of, thinking of which one would be distraught and come to grief. What are the four?

Of Buddhas, monks, the range is unthinkable; world - speculation (Lokà - cintà)..." (35)

("Cattàr'imàni, bhikkhave, acinteyyàni na cintetabbàni yàni cintento ummàdassa vighàtassa bhàgì assa. Katamàni cattàri?

Buddhànam, bhikkhave, buddhavisayo acinteyyo na cintetabbo yam cintento ummàdassa vighàtassabhàgì assa; jhàyissa, bhikkhave, jhànavisayo..., kammavipàko..., lokacintà...") (36)

For states of mind, such as lust (lobha), malice (dosa) and illusion (moha), He analysed and showed that one can understand them by seeing them with the eye of wisdom, but not with belief, argument or reflection on reasons... He taught:

"Herein, brethren, a brother beholding an object with the eye, either recognizes within him the existence of lust, malice and illusion, thus: "I have lust, malice and illusion, or recognizes the non-existence of these qualities within him, thus: "I have not lust, malice and illusion". Now as to that recognition of their existence and non - existence within him, are these conditions, I ask, to be understood by belief, or inclination, or hearsay, or argument as to method, or reflection on reasons, or delight in speculation?

- "Surely not, Lord".

Are these states to be understood by seeing them with the eye of wisdom?

-." Surely, Lord". (37)

("Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu cakkhunà ruùpam disvà santam và ajjhattam ràgadosamoham Atthi me ajjhattam ràgadosamohoti pajànàti //asantam và ajjhattam ràgadosamoham Natthi me ajjhattam ràgadosamohoti pajànàti // yantam, bhikkhave, bhikkhu cakkhunà ruùpam disvà santam và ajjhattam ràgadosamoham Atthi me... Natthi me... // api nu me, bhikkhave, dhammà saddhàya và veditabbà ruciyà và veditabbà anussavena và veditabbà àkàra - parivitakkena và veditabbà ditthinijjhà nakhantiyà và veditabbà ti // No hetam bhante //

Nanu me, bhikkhave, dhammà pannàya disvà veditabbà ti //Evam bhante //") (38)

It is similar for hearing a sound with the ear, smelling a scent with the nose, tasting a savour with the tongue, contacting a tangible with the body, and cognizing a mental state with the mind.

In Gradual Sayings (Vol I, PTS, 1989, pp. 178-179), Lord Buddha analysed the conditions expressed by the one who is competent or incompetent to discuss, and advised His disciples to follow the following basic points:

- If a person is asked a question, and he can give a categorical reply to the question requiring it, a discriminating reply to the question requiring it, a counter - reply to the question requiring it, or he does not waive a question which should be waived, such a person is really competent to discuss. And inversely.

- If a person is asked a question, and he does not abide by conclusions, whether right or wrong, he does not abide by an assumption, does not abide by recognized arguments, does not abide by usual procedure, such a person really is incompetent to discuss. And inversely.

- If a person is asked a question, then he evades the question by another, or he turns it off the point, or he displays his vexation, malice or sulkiness, such a person is actually incompetent to discuss. And inversely.

- If a person is asked a question, then instead of giving reply he loads with abuse and beats down the questioner, laughs him to scorn and catches him up when he falters, such a person is actually incompetent to discuss.

- If he does not do anything of the above, he really is competent to discuss.

The above are typical cases of analysis among so many cases taught by Lord Buddha. All of them will bring men insight into things, but not knowledge coming from the experience of sense organs.

Spirit of criticism:

Together with the method of analysis, Lord Buddha taught a spirit of criticism. This spirit estimates the object analysed whether it is right or wrong, wholesome or unwholesome, acceptable or unacceptable, suitable to Dhamma or not; etc. after process of analysis.

In the teaching for the Kàlamas mentioned before, it runs that, "... Be ye not misled by report..." the Tathàgata asked His disciples to criticize things on the basis of their observation, analysis and wisdom. He asked them, in "the discourse on Inquiring" (vìmamsakasuttam) (Middle Length Saying, Vol, No 47) to observe and check Him whether He is a Fully self - awakened One or not. He said:

"Monks, an inquiring monk, learning the range of another's mind, should make a study of the Tathàgata so as to distinguish whether He is an Enlightened One or not. ..

Monks, should study the Tathàgata in regard to two things: things cognisable through the eye and through the ear, thinking: "Do those impure states cognisable through the eye and ear exist in the Tathàgata or not?..."

Monks, Tathàgata should Himself be further questioned hereon: "Do these impure states cognisable through the eye and ear exist in the Tathàgata or not?..."

Monks, if anyone in whom faith in the Teacher is established, rooted, supported by these methods, by these words, that faith is called reasoned, based on vision, strong... Thus, monks, does there come to be study of the Tathagata's dhamma, and thus does the Tathàgata come to be well studied in the proper manner." (39)

("Vìmamsakena, bhikkhave, bhikkhunà parassa cetoopariyàyam àjànantena dvìsu dhammesu Tathàgato samannesitabbo, cakkhusotavinneyyesu: ye sankilittha cakkhusotavinneyyà dhammà samvijjanti và te Tathàgatassa no va ti...

Tatra, bhikkhave, Tathàgato va uttarim patipucchitabbo: Ye sankilitthà cakkhusotavinneyyà dhammà samvijjanti và te Tathàgatassa no va ti...

Evam kho, bhikkhave, Tathàgate dhammasamannesanà hoti, Evanca pana Tathàgato dhammatà susamannittho hotì ti.") (40)

The above quotation proves Lord Buddha, on His way of educating men, concerned much about the spirit of criticism. This spirit will help His disciples improve their "self - awareness", "self - understanding", "self- confidence", their capacity of analysis, and their vision. This sounds very wise and human.

Spirit of creativeness:

Being with the wisdom regard, self - awareness, spirit of criticism,.., creativeness is another distinguished spirit of Buddhist education.

The wisdom regard to things existing in "self - awareness" always sees things as they really are in the very present moment. These things are flowing on and on without any pause: this means they always are new at each moment: the subject of the regard is new, and its object is also new. This is the condition of the seeing of creativeness.

Charles E. Skinner in his book titled "Educational Psychology'' wrote:

" Creative thinking means that the predictions and/or inferences for the individual are new, original, ingenious, unusual. The creative thinker is one who explores new areas and makes new observations, new predictions, new inferences") (41).

With regard to this definition of creative thinking, or creative thinker, the Buddhist way of life led by the wisdom regard ; or by right view and right thought; really is a way of life of creativeness.

It may be said without doubt that the individual's characteristics of self-confidence, self-awareness, self-support, self-responsibility, criticism, analysis, actually are those of a creative thinker. When a person's task of cultivating his regard to things is done, the five hindrances (panca niìvaranàni) and the ten fetters (dasa kilesà) hindering his mind from the truth of things are gradually destroyed, and his mind becomes free: this free mental state really is a state of creativeness. When his mind abides in the third and fourth meditation, his regard can see in the depth of the existence of things and discover new areas of them: this is a regard of creativeness.

Such is the spirit of creativeness of the way of life taught by Lord Buddha.

Spirit of meditation:

The wisdom regard mentioned will be reinforced and the source of creativeness of mind will be awakened by the practice of meditation which is the main task of the Buddhist Way (Magga) to liberation.

Meditation is understood as calming individual's desire and immediate troubles. It transforms the five hindrances (restlessness, torpor and sloth, sensuous desire, ill-will, sceptical doubt) into the five meditative mental factors (thought-conception, discursive thinking, rapture; joy, equanimity- happiness-one pointedness in the "first meditation; rapture; joy, equanimity-happiness- onepointedness in the "second meditation"; joy, equanimity-happiness-onepointedness in the "third meditation"; equanimity - happiness - one pointednessin the "fourth meditation"). And all evil thoughts arising from the five hindrances also are calmed or destroyed.

In the "fourth meditation", the wisdom regard or vipassana is developed fast and comfortably.

So, meditation responds to the following purposes of life:

- Calming immediate troubles of a person practising it.

- Opening a source of creativeness which is a very important factor contributing to the construction of human culture and civilization.

- Developing the wisdom regard for ceasing the cause of suffering.

- Seeing the truth of the existence of men and things.

This is why Lord Buddha taught His disciples that:

" The Bhikkhu whose body and tongue and mind are quieted, who is collected, and has rejected the baits of the world, he is called quiet." (42) (Dhp. 378)

("Santakàyo santavàco santavà susamàhito,
Vantalokàmiso bhikkhu upasanto'ti vuccati"). (43)

And:

" The bhikkhu, full of delight, who is happy in the doctrine of Buddha will reach the quiet place (Nibbàna), happiness consisting the cessation of natural inclinations.) (44) (Dhp. 381)

("Pàmojjabahulo bhikkhuâ pasanno buddha- sàsane, Adhigacche padam santam sankhàruùpa samam sukham. " (45) (Dhp. 381)

So, during the period of time of practising meditation for wisdom regard, an individual lives in the fresh air of mind with happy feelings and gets rid of all troubles, worries withering the flowers of young generations

In addition to the above things, the practice of following breathing in - and breathing out may help worldly men improve their capacity of memory and observation which is very interesting to students in schools; the practice of following and observing their mind will help them see their mental problems as the result of a task of self - therapy.

In short, the way of Buddhist meditation, including Calm (samatha) and Insight (vipassanà) is the way of seeing, developing and cultivating one's mind. Without it, a person cannot understand what he really is, and cannot resolve his psychological problems for peace and happiness in the here - and - now, as Lord Buddha affirmed:

" There is, monks, this only way to the purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrow and distress, for the disappearance of pain and sadness, for the gaining of the right path, for the realization of Nibbàna: that is to say the four foundations of mindfulness." (46)

("Ekàyàno ayam, bhikkhave, maggo sattànam visudhiyà sokapatiddavànam samatikkamàya dukkhadomassànam atthagamàya nàyassaadhigamàya nibbànassa sacchikiriyàya cattàro satipatthanà.") (47)

But being with the practice of it - meaning the practice of Four Foundations of Mindfulness, cattàro satipatthàna - is the real meaning of a significant life to live: it is the way of return to oneself for taking refuge in oneself but not in any other man or superpower; it is the way to be an island for oneself. During His last days before parinibbàna, Lord Buddha solicitously taught Ànanda, his closest disciple, that:

"Therefore, Ànanda, you should live as islands unto yourselves, being your own refuge, with no one else as your refuge, with the Dhamma as an island, with the Dhamma as your refuge, with no other refuge? Here, Ànanda, a monk abides contemplating the body as body, earnestly, clearly aware, mindful and having put away all hankering and fretting for the world, and likewise with regard to feelings, mind and mind - objects. That, Ànanda, is how a monk lives as an island unto himself,.. with no other refuge. And those who now in my time or afterwards live thus, they will become the hightest, if they are desirous of learning." (48)

("Idh' Ànanda, bhikkhu kàye kàyànupassì viharati àtàpì sampajàno satimà vineyya loke abhijjhà- domanassam, vedanàsu... pe... citte... pe..., dhammesu dhammànupassì viharati àtàpì sampajàno satimà vineyya loke abhjja- domanassam, evam kho, Ànanda, bhikkhuattadìpo viharati attasarano ananna -sarano, dhammadìpo dhammasarano anannasarano.") (49)

This is the only way for everybody: When this way is put into practice, many different results will come to different practicians because of their different temperaments, capacities, volitions, efforts, determinations, etc., called their old and new Kammas. So, Kamma is another subject to be examined for understanding a man's activities.

IV.2.2: INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION

Verse No. 1 and verse No. 2 of Dhammapada as quoted in the part of "Spirit of Self- responsibility" of this work, imply the meaning of Kamma which says:

* Man's thought put on an action of body, speech or mind is the root cause of his deed defining his deed is either good or evil. The result of it will be happy or painful accordingly.

* Man's kamma is called evil, if it is caused by craving, ill - will or illusion.

* Man's kamma is called good, if it is caused by desirelessness, compassion or wisdom.

* Unwholesome deed will actually lead the doer to woe - states of existence.

* Wholesome deed will lead the doer to happy states of existence.

* Between the cause of a deed and its result exists a short or long period of time, according to the kind of kamma.

* No external power gives reward or punishment to a man's deed.

* The doer of deeds also is the receiver of their results as Lord Buddha declared:

" I am the result of my own deeds; heir to deeds; deeds are matrix; deeds are kin; deeds are foundation; whaterver deed I do, whether good or bad, I shall become heir to it - this ought to be often contemplated by woman and man, by house dweller and by one gone forth." (50)

("Kammassako'mhi kammadàyàdo kammayoni kammabandhu kammapatisarano, yam kammam karissàmi kalyànam và pàpakam và, tassa dàyàdo bhavissàmiti abhinham paccavekkhitabbam itthiyà và purisena và gahatthena và pabbajitena và. Kathan ca, bhikkhave, atthavasam paticca - jaràdhammo'mhi jaram anatìto ti abhinham paccavekkhitabbam itthiyà và purisena và gahatthena và pabbajitena và.") (51)

Some non-Buddhists claim that according to the Buddhist doctrine of Kamma this life is nothing but the result of kamma having been done in previous lives: it is predetermined or predestinate. But, in reality, it does not appear as simple as such. There are two kinds of kamma which are called old kamma and new kamma as the following teaching mentions:

" And what, brethren, is action that is old? - The eye, brethren, is to be viewed as action that is old, brought about and itentionally done, as a base for felling. And so with the tongue and mind. This, brethren, is called "action that is old"

And what is action that is new?

The action one performs now, brethren, by body, speech and mind, that is called "action that is new" And what, brethren, is the ceasing of action? That ceasing of action by body, speech and mind, by which one contacts freedom, that is called "the ceasing of action".

And what, brethren, is the way leading to the ceasing of action?

It is this Aryan Eightfold Path, to wit: right view,.., right concentration." (52)

("Katamam, bhikkhave, purànakammam // cakkhum, bhikkhave, purànakammam abhisankhatam abhisancetayitam vedaniyam datthabbam // pe // Jivhà... // la // Mano... // Idam vuccati, bhikkhave, purànakammam //

Katamanca, bhikkhave, navakammam // yam kho, bhikkhave, etarahi kammam karoti kàyena vàcàya manasà idam vuccati, bhikkhave, navakammam//

Katamo ca, bhikkhave, kammanirodho // yo kho,bhikkhave, àyakammavacìkammamanoka-mmassa nirodhà vimuttim phusati // ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, kammanirodho //

Katamà ca, bhikkhave, kammanirodhagàminì patipadà//Ayam eva ariyo atthangiko maggo .// Ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, kammanirodhagàminì patipadà // "). (53)

As the definition of old and new kamma quoted above, old kamma is what has made up this body of the five aggregates with its relation to the surroundings, such as: family, social class, country, etc., being born as a male, or female with good looking or bad looking body, with nice complexion or not, with graceful or ungraceful face, with a high I.Q. quotient or a low I.Q. quotient, receiving good education or not, etc. These things are out of a person's mind.

The new Kamma is defined as what a man has done, is doing and will do in this life through his body, speech and mind. The intention, effort, desire, will to live, determination, etc., of a person are mental agents of his new Kamma. These things can cause him suffering or happy according to his regard to things.

So, all causes of the circle of birth - and - death created in the past or in the present are what a man is facing in the here - and - now: they all exist only in the sphere of the five aggregates. This is the reason why Lord Buddha's disciples can attain Arahatship by destroying all defilements arising from aggregates only. And this is the meaning of considering the five aggregates as an immense ocean of suffering to be acrossed.

The gravest result the old kamma has left for a human being in this life is his habit of thirsting for things, and of thinking of things as having a permanent self (or soul) which has created the current human culture full of troubles. If a person brings up his self - thought and desire, he will strengthen his old Kamma and go further in suffering. If he stops them, he will come to cease his old and new Kamma for freedom and happiness. In fact, he appears completely free in the very present moment to make any choice he wants between what he should do and what he should not. It is the present moment which is when he copes with his desire arising from his thought caused by the attraction of things. This desire invades his mind. He should know the way to fight against it as it is taught by the following teaching:

" ... Anyone, monks, knowing and seeing eye as it really is (ear, nose, tongue, body, mind)... while he, observing the peril, is not attached, bound or infactuated, the five groups of grasping go on to future diminution... He experiences happiness of body and happiness of mind." (54)

("Cakkhunca kho, bhikkhave, jànam passam yathàbhuøtam, ruùpe jànam passam yathàbhuøtam, cakkhuvinnànam jànam passam yathàbhuøtam,.. Tassa asàrattassa asamyuttassa asammuølhassa àdìnavànupassino viharato àyatim pancupàdànakkhandhà apacayam gacchanti... So kàyasukham pi cetosukham pi patisam vedeti.") (55)

Here, the author recognizes that Lord Buddha's teaching on the doctrine of Kamma really emphasizes an individual's new Kamma, or mental, oral, bodily actions, leading to ceasing Kamma itself. His teaching is centered on seeing the truth of dependent origination of the five aggregates and detaching from them for true happiness, but not on the search for personality as an entity.

In daily life, people tend to assimilate themselves with conditioned aggregates, therefore they fall into suffering caused by change. If they see their wrong view they will come to the cultivation of the aggregates for the release of their suffering

IV.2.3. CULTIVATION OF THE FIVE AGGREGATES AND EDUCATION

As discussed before, Kamma is volitional action. Volitional action is activities aggregate. The operation of activities aggregate is that of the five aggregates. So Kamma actually is the operation of those aggregates.

The Buddhist Way (magga) releasing the bondage of Kamma means releasing the bondage of the five aggregates. This suggests that the cultivation of aggregates is the task for liberation which has two things to do:

- Controlling a person's habits of things as having a permanent self from which desire for things arises.

- Developping his regard to things as non - self from which desireless thought arises.

This task is therefore for the cessation of his troubles and sufferings which is the cherished dream of a man, and is the root purpose the branch of modern educational psychology aims at. All teachings of Lord Buddha recorded in Pàli Suttapitaka are centered on this great point.

Once, Sàriputta Mahàthera, the Chief disciple of Lord Buddha Gotama, explained:

"And what, your reverences, is right view? Whatever, your reverences, is knowledge of anguish, knowledge of the arising of anguish, knowledge of the stopping of anguish, knowledge of the course leading to the stopping of anguish: this, your reverences, is called right view.

And what reverences, is called right aspiration (or right thought)? Aspiration for renunciation, a spiration for non - malevolence, aspiration for harmlessness: this, your reverences, is called right aspiration." (56)

("Katamà c'àvuso, sammàditthi? - Yam kho, àvuso, dukkhe nànam dukkhasamudaye nànam dukkhanirodhe nànam dukkhanirodhàgàminiyà patipadàya nànam : ayam vuccat'àvuso, sammàditthi.

Katamo c'àvuso , sammàsamkappo? -Nekkhammasamkappo abyàpàdasamkappo avihimsà - samkappo: ayam vuccat'àvuso, sammàsamkappo.") (57)

The meaning of "right view" declared in the above quotation implies the meaning of right view used for counselors and psychotherapists in mordern schools whose role is helping a client understand his troubles, the cause of his troubles, the cessation of his troubles and the way to the cessation of them.

The meaning of "right aspiration", or thought forrenunciation, thought for non-malevolence, and thought for harmlessness, is the motive force in a person's deeds leading to peace of mind. This will open an operation of the five aggregates to mental peace.

Sàriputta Mahàthero continues explaining:

" And what, your reverences, is right speech?

Refraining from lying speech, refraining from slanderous speech, refraining from harsh speech, refraining from gossip, this, your reverences, is called right speech.

And what, your reverences, is right action? Refraining from onslaught on creatures, refraining from taking what has not been given, refraining from going wrongly among the sense pleasures, this, your reverences, is called right action.

And what, your reverences, is right mode of livelihood? As to this, your reverences, a disciple of the ariyans, getting rid of a wrong mode of livelihood. This, your reverences, is called right mode of livelihood". (58)

("Katamà c'àvuso, sammàvàcà? Musàvàdà veramanì, pisunàya vàcàya veramanì, pharusàya vàcàya veramanì, samphappalàpà veramanì: ayam vuccat' àvuso, sammàvàcà. Katamo c'àvuso sammàkammanto? - Pànàtipàtà veramanì, adinnàdànà veramanì, kàmesu micchàcàrà veramanì: ayam vuccat' àvuso, sammàkammanto.

Katamo c'àvuso, sammà - àjiìvo? - Idh'àvuso, ariyasàvako micchà- àjìvam pahàya sammà - àjìvena jìvikam kappeti: ayam vuccat'àvuso, sammà - àjìvo".) (59)

The above actions called good deeds will help a person control a lot of troubles arising from his mind. Inversely, if a person does evil deeds he will receive bad results in this life and in the next existence which are suffering. On the basis of doing good deeds he practises meditation and easily attains concentration by his right effort:

" And what, your reverences, is right endeavour? As to this, your reverences, a monk generates desire, endeavours, stirs up energy, exerts his mind and strives for the non - arising of evil unskilled states that have not arisen... for the getting rid of evil unskilled states that have arisen... for the arising of skilled states that have not arisen.. for the maintenance, preservation, increase, maturity, development and completion of skilled states that have arisen. This, your reverences, is called right endeavour". (60)

("Katamo c'àvuso, sammàvàyàmo? Idh'àvuso, bhikkhu, anuppannànam pàpakànam akusalànam dhammànam anuppàdàya chandam janeti vàyamati viriyam àrabhati cittam pagganhàti padahati; uppannànam pàpakànam akusalànam dhammànam pahànàya chandam janeti... padahati; anuppannànam kusalànam dhammànam uppàdàya chandam janeti... padahati; uppannànam kusalànam dhammànam thitiyà asammohàya bhiyyobhàvàya vepullàya bhàvanàya paripuriyà chandam janeti... padahati; ayam vuccat'àvuso, sammàvàyàmo".) (61)

Right endeavour, according to the above teaching, is a mental force to stop the cause of mental troubles, and to make arisen skilled thoughts. Without it, the task of meditation is difficult to be done, and the Way (Magga) is hard to be performed. Concentration is therefore necessary to be supported by "right effort" and the later is listed in the group of samàdhi: right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.

With right effort, the practician comes to practise right mindfulness, or the Foundations of mindfulness dissussed in (IV.2.1: Spirit of meditation), for bare attention, keen observation, calm and awareness. In concentrations, he can wipe out his evil thoughts. In the fourth meditation, sensual desires are ejected, and Insight (vipassana) is developed: he can know and see things as they really are, abide in a free state of mind and a feeling of happiness. Here, if Insight is well-developed, his regard of wisdom to aggregates may completely destroy his defilements for perfected Wisdom or Enlightenment.

In short, the above factors of the task of cultivation relate closely to each other, in which "right view" is the most important factor being considered as the starting point and destination of the practising the Way. With ragard to their relationship, Lord Buddha taught:

" As to this, monks, right view comes first. And how, monks, does right view come first? ... Right thought, monks, proceeds from right view; right speech proceeds from right thought, ... ; right concentration proceeds from right mindfulness; right knowledge proceeds from right concentration; right freedom proceeds from right knowledge. In this way, monks, the learner's course is possessed of eight components, the perfected one's, of ten components". (62)

("Tatra, bhikkhave, sammàditthi pubbangamà hoti. Kathan ca, bhikkhave, sammàditthi pubbangamà hoti? Sammàditthassa, bhikkhave, sammàsamkappo pahoti; sammàsamkappassa sammàvàcà pahoti; ... sammàsamàdhissa sammànànam pahoti; sammànànassa sammàvimutti pahoti. Iti kho, bhikkhave, atthan- gasamannàgato sekho patipado dasangasamannàgato arahà hoti". (63)

In short form, the above Eightfold Path may be expressed in three groups: Morals or Sìla (right speech, right action and right livelyhood), Meditation (right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration or Samàdhi), and Wisdom or Pannà (right view and right thought) which are three basic steps of cultivation of one's mind. These steps are so important that Lord Buddha repeated them several times during His last days inlife:

" This is morality, this is concentration, this is wisdom. Concentration, when imbued withmorality, brings great fruit and profit. Wisdom, when imbued with concentration, brings great fruit and profit. The mind imbued with wisdom becomes completely free from the corruptions, that is from the corruption of sensuality, of becoming, of false views and of ignorance". (64)

("Iti sìlam iti samàdhi iti pannà, sìlaparibhàvito samàdhi mahapphalo hoti mahànisamso, samàdhi -paribhàvità pannà mahapphalà hoti mahànisamsà, panna - paribhàvitam cittam sammadeva àsavehi vimuccati seyyathìdam kàmàsavà bhavàsavà ditthàsavà avijjàsavà ti".) (65)

In principle, all teachings of Lord Buddha recorded in Pancanikaàya are aimed at releasing human beings' troubles in this life. They have a function of helping an individual see the way to make arise the skilful thought, to release the opposite evil thought controlling his mind: for example, the five meditative mental factors releasing the five hindrances; compassion or mettà (or adosa) releasing ill - will (dosa); detachment or greedilessness (alobha) releasing greediness (lobha); wisdom or non- illusion (amoha) releasing illusion (moha); perception of selflessness, impermanence and suffering releasing conceit "I am" etc.. This task called the cultivation of the five aggregates or mind - development is done by the individual himself and by his effort itself in the present. The individual really is mentally free performing the task in the here - and - now. He just starts from his present conditions of life which depend on his body, health, knowledge, emotion, social position, etc., especially from his thirst for things: On the one hand, he continues going on his present way of life, on the other hand, should be aware of the dangers of his desire for things caused by impermanence, and should observe and analyse with his wisdom what is going on with his thoughts and feelings. In doing this, his thought of detachment from things observed will arise in his mind and bring him liberation of mind and of wisdom.

For a laywoman or a layman who has duties to do in daily life for herself // himself, for her // his family, company or religion, and country, Lord Buddha practically introduced many steps of the way of cultivation. The first and basic step for her // him is, according to the discourse on Sigàlaka (Dìghanikàya, Sutta No 31), to abandon four wrong deeds: not taking life, not taking what is not given, not doing sexual misconduct, and not lying speech; not doing what is caused by attachment, ill - will, folly or fear; not to waste his substance either by the six ways which are strong drink, haunting the streets at unfitting times, attending affairs, gambling, keeping bad company, and habitual idleness.

In addition to the above things, a laity should live in the six good relationships of his family and society: between parents and children, between husband and wife, between teacher and student, among relatives and neighbours, between monk and laity, and between employer and employee. These relationships are based on human love, loyalty, sincerity, gratitude, mutualacceptance, mutual understanding and mutual respect which relate closely to individuals' happiness in the present.

On the basis of the task suggested above, a laity can improve his mind -develpoment by practising the Four Foundations of Mindfulness or practising just mindfulness of body together with compassion as showed in the discourse of Compassion or Loving - Kindness (Mettàsutta) in Suttanipàta of the Khuddakanikàya, generally as follows:

* Practising mindfulness of compassion when he is lying, standing, sitting or walking.

* Wishing all beings joy and happiness to make arise thought of loving - kindness in his mind.

* Wishing all beings not wishing each other ill or harm.

* Concerning about other's pain and protecting them from suffering as a mother's doing for her only child.

All the tasks mentioned above are very helpful for the development of the wholeness of man, and may have good contributions to the formation of a new course of human culture and education. On the side of a practician, he is strongly influenced by the qualities of the culture and education of the society he is living in. This is to be discussed more.

Education for the cultivation of the five aggregates:

What a child is after his mother gave a birth to him is the result of his old kamma, according to the teaching of Lord Buddha on "new and old Kamma" discussed before. What of education he has received from his family and society will put strong influences on his way of thought, attitude of life, desire, aspiration and deeds which are of what is called new Kamma. It may be said that what a person does or will do by mind, speech or body is what culture and education of his society suggest him to. In this life, he appears as an "educational being" rather than "a reasonable animal" defined in the old days. On the other side, it is self - thought of individuals which has shaped the course of education and culture of a society. This interrelationship says something different to the development of the five aggregates leading to happiness which requires a non - self way of thought and desire. To help individuals cultivate their mind on this way of life, all means of communication in the present society - such as books, magazines, newspapers, radio - broadcast, movies, etc.; - Which strengthen self - thought and sensual and sexual desire need to be adjusted or reduced to a considerable level; all means of communication awakening non - self thought and desire need to be maintained and developed. This requires education to do the same thing: there is no need to build up any theory of personality as a self, but new critical studies are needed, which are:

* Critical studies on physical body and health for a knowledge of troubles arising from it.

* Critical studies on sensuality and sexuality for aknowledge of dealing with them for a physiopsychological balance and peace of mind.

* Critical studies on perception, thought, knowledge for a realization the true value of all values in life.

* Critical studies on behaviours, psychology, psychiatry getting along the way of development of the five aggregates.

* Critical studies on sociology, ecology, anthropology, sciences, literature and education for a knowledge of conditions of life for happiness of man.

All those studies aim at the same purpose that is building up a good society for man to live in happiness, and therefore building up a new culture.

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(55) : Majjhima-Nikàya, Vol. III,..., pp. 288-289.
(56) : Middle Length Sayings, Vol. III,..., pp. 298.
(57) : Majjhima-Nikàya, Vol. III,..., p. 251.
(58) : Middle Length Sayings, Vol. III,..., pp. 298.
(59) : Majjhima-Nikàya, Vol. III,..., p. 251.
(60) : Middle Length Sayings, Vol. III,.., pp. 298-299.
(61) : Majjhima-Nikàya, Vol. III,..., p. 251-252.
(62) : Middle Length Sayings, Vol. III,..., pp. 119.
(63) : Majjhima-Nikàya, Vol. III,..., pp. 75-76.
(64) : Long Discourses, tr. by Maurice Walshe,..., 1987, p. 234.
(65) : Dìgha-Nikàya, Vol. II,..., 1982, p. 98.

 

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