The Tree of Enlightenment
An Introduction to the Major Traditions of Buddhism
by Peter Della Santina
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Part Three
The Vajrayana
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Chapter Twenty-Six
Psychology, Physiology, and Cosmology
In the Vajrayana tradition, psychology, physiology, and cosmology are
closely
interrelated. In this chapter I would like to
show how this is the
case, and also sketch in
general terms the benefits of this interrelationship.
Let us begin by referring once again to the idea of
interdependence and
interpenetration.
Interdependence is
synonymous with relativity, or emptiness, and it is
one of the two
pillars of the Vajrayana tradition. In this particular context,
interdependence has a specific
meaning--namely, interpenetration.
Insofar as everything depends on
everything else for
its existence
and nature, so everything holds within itself the seeds,
the causes
and
conditions, of everything else. Specifically, we can understand
this by
focusing on the
idea of the interdependence of the parts and
the whole. The nature of
the whole depends
on the nature of the
parts, and the nature of the parts depends on the
nature of the
whole.
This is the interdependence of parts and whole.
Traditionally, we see this idea elaborated in the Mahayana in
parables
such as that of the
net of Indra. In this parable, each part
of the net depends for its
existence and nature on
the other parts,
and each small part of the net in a sense contains in
miniature the
characteristics of the net as a whole. This idea of interdependence
or
interpenetration of
parts and whole became very important in
China, too, where it is
probably the single most
important idea in
Hua-yen philosophy, or the philosophy of totality.
The idea of interpenetration is found in the Vajrayana tradition
as
well, where we can see
it expressed even in the term tantra
itself. You may remember that
tantra refers primarily
and literally to
the idea of the weave in a piece of cloth or fabric
(see Chapter 22).
Using
the analogy of cloth or fabric, we can understand the
interpenetration
of parts and whole
when we see that a small
section of fabric reveals the pattern that
extends throughout the
whole.
The idea of the interpenetration of parts and whole is also
expressed
in the Vajrayana in
the notion of the interpenetration of
individual beings (who here
represent the parts, or
microcosms)
and the universe (which represents the whole, or
macrocosm). This
notion
of man and the universe as microcosm and macrocosm
is the first idea I
want to consider
by way of introduction to a more
specific treatment of psychology,
physiology, and
cosmology in the
Vajrayana.
To understand the dynamic role of psychology,
physiology, and cosmology
in the
Vajrayana tradition, we need
also to recall the second fundamental idea
of the Vajrayana
tradition--the idea of the variability of experience. This is expressed
in the experience of
Asanga, who saw the Buddha Maitreya first
not at all, then in the form
of a diseased dog,
and finally in his
celestial and transformed aspect. This idea is also
expressed in the
fact
that the beings who inhabit the six realms of existence view
phenomena
differently: this
is the variability of experience relative to
the conditioned state of
one's mind. Thus
reality is dependent on
the conditions of one's mind: an impure mind
will perceive and
experience reality in one way, whereas a transformed and purified
mind
will experience it
in another.
It is important to keep both interpenetration and the variability
of
experience in mind if
we are going to understand the relationship
between the individual and
the universe in
Vajrayana psychology,
physiology, and cosmology, and if we are going to
understand
how
this relationship functions dynamically to bring about the
transformation that is the
goal of Vajrayana practice.
Let us first look specifically at psychology within the
Vajrayana
tradition. Thus far I have
been at pains to show that the
Vajrayana is a natural and logical
development of the
Buddhist
tradition as a whole, as we find it embodied in the Theravada
and
Mahayana.
Given this fact, it is not surprising that Vajrayana
psychology takes
as its basic building
blocks elements which
belong to a system that is central to Buddhist
psychology in
general.
These building blocks are the five aggregates. As in the
Theravada and
Mahayana, the
five aggregates of form, feeling,
perception, volition, and
consciousness function as the
basic
components of Vajrayana psychology. In the impure condition of
mind--the
condition common to all of us before we have
transformed our
experience--these five
aggregates are associated
respectively with the five afflictions, or
defilements, of
ignorance,
pride, attachment, envy, and aversion. You will notice the
presence
of the
three basic afflictions that are causes of the experience of
suffering
and, in addition to
them, the afflictions of pride and envy.
We can also see the five afflictions in relation to the five realms
of
existence that are not
conducive to liberation. In this context,
ignorance corresponds to the
realm of animals,
pride to the realm
of the gods, attachment to the realm of the hungry
ghosts, envy to
the
realm of the demigods, and aversion to the realm of the hell
beings. It
is interesting to
note that the five afflictions also constitute
the causes of birth in
the five unfavorable
realms of existence.
This is the picture of reality seen from the point of view of the
untransformed mode of
being, the impure vision which is typical of
our experience, and which
was typical of
Asanga's experience
when he was unable to see Maitreya. Even in the
Perfection of
Wisdom literature, we find statements to the effect that, as a
Bodhisattva progresses
toward Buddhahood, his aggregates
become perfectly pure. In the
Vajrayana, this general
statement is
given positive and specific content so that, in Vajrayana
psychology, the five
aggregates are transformed and appear in the
form of the five celestial
Buddhas when
the mind has been purified
by the cultivation of wholesome conditions.
Thus, in their
transformed mode of being, the five aggregates appear as the five
celestial Buddhas: the
aggregate of form, when purified, appears in
the form of the Buddha
Vairochana; feeling,
in the form of
Ratnasambhava; perception, in the form of Amitabha;
volition, in
the form
of Amoghasiddhi; and consciousness, in the form of
Akshobhya.
Some of you may have seen these five celestial Buddhas
iconographically
portrayed in
the mandala, a sacred or magical
circle which is a representation of
the purified or
transformed
universe. What the five celestial Buddhas represent is the
five
components of
psycho-physical being in their transformed and
purified mode of being.
The five celestial
Buddhas together
represent the transformation of our impure experience
into a
purified,
or liberated, mode of being.
Incidentally, these five celestial Buddhas are also said to be
the
Buddhas of the Five
Families: the Buddha, Ratna (or jewel),
Padma (or lotus), Karma, and
Vajra families,
respectively. These
are the symbols that stand for the five aggregates
in their
transformed
mode of being.
Just as, on the untransformed and impure level, the five
aggregates are
associated with the
five afflictions, so on the
transformed and purified level, the five
celestial Buddhas
correspond to the five transcendental knowledges, or wisdoms.
The first
of these
transcendental knowledges is the knowledge of
the Dharmadhatu, which
corresponds to
the Buddha Vairochana.
The knowledge of the Dharmadhatu is the
knowledge of things
as
they are in reality, the knowledge of the quintessential nature or
character of things. In
other words, the Dharmadhatu is that
essential nature of all phenomena
which is their
emptiness, their
nonduality. Thus the transformed aggregate of form is
the Buddha
Vairochana, and this transformation similarly implies a
transformation
from the affliction
of ignorance to the transcendental
knowledge of the true nature of all
things, or
emptiness.
Second, with the Buddha Ratnasambhava, who is the
transformed
appearance of the
aggregate of feeling, we have a
transformation of the affliction of
pride into the
transcendental
knowledge of equality. This is the knowledge which makes
all
things
equal. Here, again, we have a specific echo of something
which occurs
in the Perfection
of Wisdom literature. In the Heart
Sutra, it is said that the
perfection of wisdom makes
the unequal
equal. In the case of Ratnasambhava, we have the knowledge
which makes
things equal. More than anything else, the knowledge
of equality sees
no distinction
between samsara and nirvana. The
transcendental knowledge of equality
which sees no
distinction
between samsara and nirvana enables the Buddhas and
Bodhisattvas to operate
freely in the world.
Third, in the case of the aggregate of perception, which in its
transformed and purified
dimension becomes the Buddha
Amitabha, we have a corresponding
transformation of
the affliction
of attachment into the transcendental knowledge of
discrimination.
This is
the knowledge which is able to see all things according to
their
individual characteristics.
In a sense, this corresponds to the
knowledge of the Dharmadhatu, which
is the
knowledge of the
quintessential and universal character of all
things--that is,
emptiness.
As a complement to the knowledge of the
Dharmadhatu, we have the
knowledge of
discrimination, which is
the knowledge of the particular
characteristics of all things.
Fourth,
in the case of the aggregate of volition, which on the purified
level
takes the form
of the Buddha Amoghasiddhi, we have a
transformation of the affliction
of envy into the
transcendental
knowledge of accomplishment. This knowledge is the
ability to
know with
precision the exact situation of all sentient beings so that
they can
best be helped to
progress toward Buddhahood.
Finally,
in the case of the aggregate of consciousness, which on the
purified
level takes
the form of the Buddha Akshobhya, we have a
transformation of the
affliction of ill-will
into the transcendental
knowledge known as the mirror-like
knowledge--the ability to
reflect all things in the manner of the mirror. The mirror reflects
precisely whatever is
presented to it but remains itself unchanged,
unaffected by the images
that it reflects.
You can see that
there is
here a symmetrical arrangement of basic
psycho-physical
constituents, with the five aggregates on the impure level
corresponding to the five
celestial Buddhas on the purified level.
Similarly, there is a
symmetrical arrangement of
the five afflictions
on the untransformed, or impure, level
corresponding to the five
knowledges on the transformed and purified level.
This symmetrical arrangement between an impure and a pure experience is
carried over
into the building blocks of matter as well. On the purified level, the
five elements of the
world--earth, water, fire, air, and space--take the forms of the five
celestial female
deities who are consorts of the five celestial Buddhas. The element of
space, which
corresponds to the aggregate of form, is transformed on the purified
level into a female
deity who is the consort of the Buddha Vairochana. The elements of
earth, fire, air, and
water, which correspond to the aggregates of feeling, perception,
volition, and
consciousness, respectively, are transformed at the purified level into
the female deities
who are the consorts of Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi, and
Akshobhya,
respectively.
In Vajrayana psychology, therefore, we have aggregates, afflictions,
and elements on the
ordinary, impure level which are transformed on the purified level into
the five celestial
Buddhas, the five transcendental knowledges, and the five female
deities who are
consorts of the five celestial Buddhas. We have two levels of
experience that are
symmetrical, one level of experience being typical of an impure form of
existence, the
other of a purified form of existence. This is the basic scheme of
Vajrayana psychology.
In the system of Vajrayana physiology, these five celestial Buddhas,
along with their five
consorts, are found within the body of each individual person. They are
situated at five
centers of psychic energy, called chakras, which are found within the
body of every
person. The five centers of psychic energy are situated at the top of
the head, the throat,
the heart, the navel, and the genitals. At each place, there is one of
the five celestial
Buddhas with his consort seated on a lotus throne: the Buddha
Vairochana, who is the
purified dimension of the aggregate of form, is at the top of the head;
Amitabha, who is
the purified dimension of perception, is at the throat; Akshobhya, who
is the purified
dimension of consciousness, is at the heart; Ratnasambhava, who is the
purified
dimension of feeling, is at the navel; and Amoghasiddhi, who is the
purified dimension of
volition, is situated at the genitals.
There are a number of channels of psychic energy, called nadis,
connecting these centers
of psychic energy. Although there are a great number of these channels,
there are three
which are very important: the central psychic channel (avadhuti), which
runs directly
from the top of the head to the genitals and which connects the five
cakras; and the two
psychic channels on the right and left of the central channel (the
rasana and lalana,
respectively). On the level of advanced Vajrayana practice, the
practitioner is able to
manipulate and direct the flow of psychic energy--which is none other
than the energy of
mind alone--through these psychic channels. This enables him or her to
unite the
opposites which are reflected in the psycho-physical experience of the
individual person
and in the universe as a whole, in order to realize within him- or
herself in meditation the
absolute union of all opposites, the annihilation of all dualities,
which is the goal of
tantric practice.
Through this very brief portrayal of Vajrayana physiology, you can see
how the basic
building blocks of psycho-physical experience, be they viewed from the
impure level or
from the purified level, are reflected in the physiological makeup of
the person.
Through achieving the union of opposites within his psycho-physical
experience as an
individual person, the Vajrayana adept is able to bring about the
transformation of his
vision of the universe as a whole. He is able to do this because his
body is a microcosm
of the universe. In Vajrayana cosmology, the features of the universe
as a whole are
present within the psycho-physical experience of each person. Mount
Sumeru, the central
mountain of the universe according to Buddhist cosmology, is situated
within the body of
the practitioner, just as the sun and moon, the sacred rivers of India,
and pilgrimage
places are found within the body in a microcosmic way.
Not only are these features of the universe situated within the body
but so, too, are the
primary features of the transformed or purified experience. We have
already seen that the
five celestial Buddhas are found within the body at the five centers of
psychic energy. In
the same way, we find that the experience of the individual person is
in fact none other
than the experience of the celestial or purified universe, so that the
body is in fact the
celestial mansion of the divine Buddhas. In Vajrayana psychology,
physiology, and
cosmology, therefore, we find the real meaning of the expression that
'The body is a
temple.' It is a temple that contains the celestial Buddhas, who are
none other than the
transformed mode of being of the ordinary mode of being of the
psycho-physical
components, or aggregates.
You can see how, in the Vajrayana tradition, a close correspondence is
drawn between
the ordinary level of experience and the purified level of experience.
This correspondence
is established through the idea of microcosm and macrocosm.
Specifically, the Vajrayana
supplies a special psychological and physiological scheme of the
elements of experience
precisely so that they can be subjected to the direct and efficient
manipulation of the
mind. This scheme employs the centers of psychic energy and the
channels through
which psychic energy flows.
What I have tried to do in this chapter is show that, in the Vajrayana
system of
psychology, physiology, and cosmology, as in Vajrayana myth and symbol,
we do not
have an arcane and exotic portrayal of haphazard or arbitrary forms.
Rather, we have a
very carefully designed system which accords with the fundamental
principles of the
Buddhist path to liberation. What we have is really just a particularly
rich and colorful
development of the suggestions we have seen in the earlier Buddhist
traditions, in the
psychology of the Abhidharma and in the Perfection of Wisdom
literature. In the
Vajrayana tradition, all these suggestions receive a very definite
content. The Vajrayana
supplies colorful, bright, and attractive representations of the
various components of
psycho-physical experience, and a description of how their
transformation can be
achieved through the gradual purification of one's mode of being.
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Contents
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01 | 02 | 03 | 04 | 05 | 06 | 07 | 08 | 09 | 10 | 11
| 12 | 13
| 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41
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Layout: Nhi Tuong
Update : 11-05-2002
