Part One
The Fundamentals of Buddhism
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Chapter Seven
Wisdom
With this chapter we will complete our survey of the steps of the
Noble Eightfold Path. In Chapters 5 and 6 we looked at the first two groups, or ways,
of practice, those of good conduct and mental development. Here we will look at the third
way of practice, which is wisdom. At this point we find ourselves faced with an
apparent paradox: in the list of eight steps of the path, right understanding and right
thought occur first, yet in the context of the three ways of practice, the wisdom group comes last.
Why should this be? Earlier, we used the analogy of mountain-climbing to help explain the
relationships among the steps of the path. When you set out to climb a mountain,
you must have the summit in view. It is the sight of the summit that imparts the
general direction to one's steps. For this reason, even at the very beginning of a climb, you
must keep your eyes on the summit. Therefore, right understanding is listed at the very
beginning of the steps of the path. Yet in practical terms, you have to climb the lower slopes
and scale the intermediate reaches before you can gain the summit, which is the
attainment of wisdom. In practical terms, therefore, wisdom comes only at the end of your
practice of the path. Wisdom is described as the understanding of the Four Noble Truths,
the understanding of interdependent origination, and the like. What we mean when we say
this is simply that the attainment of wisdom is the transformation of these doctrinal
items from mere objects of intellectual knowledge into real, personal experience. In other
words, we want to change our knowledge of the Four Noble Truths and the like from mere
book learning into actual, living truth. This goal is accomplished first through
the cultivation of good conduct, and then specially through the cultivation of mental
development.
Anyone can read in a book about the meaning of the Four Noble Truths,
interdependent origination, and so forth, but this does not mean he or she has
attained wisdom. The Buddha himself said that it was through failing to understand the
Four Noble Truths and interdependent origination that we have all gone on in this cycle of
birth and death for so long. Obviously, when he said this, he meant something deeper than
simple failure to be acquainted intellectually with these items of doctrine.
The term "understanding" must thus be taken in the sense of
right understanding, that is to say, direct and immediate understanding. It can be likened to a
simple act of perception, like seeing a patch of blue color. Perhaps this is why
the language of seeing is so often used to describe the attainment of wisdom. We speak of
wisdom in terms of "seeing the truth" or "seeing things as they really
are" because the attainment of wisdom is not an intellectual or academic exercise: it is understanding, or
"seeing," these truths directly. When this kind of direct understanding of the nature of
reality is gained, it is equivalent to the attainment of enlightenment. This opens the door to
freedom from suffering and to nirvana.
In Buddhism, wisdom is the key to the realization of the goal of the
religion. In some religions, we find that faith is paramount; in other traditions,
meditation is supreme. But in Buddhism, faith is preliminary and meditation is instrumental. The
real heart of Buddhism is wisdom.
Two steps of the Noble Eightfold Path are included in the wisdom
group: (1) right understanding, and (2) right thought. Right understanding can be said
to mean seeing things as they really are--understanding the real truth about things,
rather than simply seeing them as they appear to be. What this means in practical terms
is insight, penetrative understanding, or seeing beneath the surface of things.
If we wanted to explain this in doctrinal terms, we would have to speak about the
Four Noble Truths, interdependent origination, impermanence, impersonality, and so
forth. But for the moment, let us just talk about the means of gaining right
understanding, leaving the contents of that understanding for another occasion. Here, again, the
scientific attitude of the Buddha's teaching is evident, because when we examine the means
of acquiring right understanding, we find that we begin with objective observation of
the world around us and of ourselves. Moreover, objective observation is joined by
inquiry, examination, and consideration.
In the course of acquiring right understanding, we find that there
are two types of understanding: (i) understanding that we acquire by ourselves, and
(ii) understanding that we acquire through others. The latter consists of truths that we are
shown by others. Ultimately, these two types of understanding merge because, in the
final analysis, real understanding (or, let us say, right understanding) has to be our
own. In the meantime, we can, however, distinguish between the understanding we achieve
through simple observation of the data of everyday experience and the understanding
we achieve through study of the teachings.
Just as, in the case of our personal situations, we are encouraged to
observe objectively the facts with which we are presented and then consider their
significance, so, when we approach the teachings of the Buddha, we are encouraged first to
study and then to consider and examine them. But whether we are talking about
observation and inquiry into the truth about our personal experience or about the study and
consideration of texts, the third and final step in this process of acquiring knowledge is
meditation. It is at this point in the process of acquiring knowledge that the two types of
understanding I alluded to earlier become indistinguishable.
To summarize, the means of acquiring right understanding are as
follows: (1) on the first stage, you have to observe and study; (2) on the second stage, you
have to examine intellectually what you have observed and studied; and (3) on the
third stage, you have to meditate on what you have examined and determined intellectually
earlier. Let us use a practical example. Say we intend to travel to a certain destination.
To prepare ourselves for the journey, we acquire a road map that shows the route we must
follow to reach our destination. First we look at the map for directions; then we have to
review what we have observed, examining the map to be sure we have understood the
indications it gives. Only then can we actually make the journey to our intended destination.
The final step in this process--making the actual journey--may be likened to
meditation.
Alternatively, suppose you have bought a new piece of equipment for
your home or office. It is not enough to read the instructions for its use once
through. They must be reread and examined closely to be certain you understand what they
mean. Only when you are sure you have understood them properly can you proceed to
operate the new piece of equipment. The act of operating the equipment successfully
is analogous to meditation. In the same way, to attain wisdom we must meditate on the
knowledge that we have acquired through observation or study and further verified
intellectually by means of examination. On the third stage of the process of acquiring
right understanding, the knowledge we have gained previously becomes part of our living
experience. Next, we might spend a few moments considering the appropriate
attitude to cultivate when approaching the teaching of the Buddha. It is said that, in
doing so, we must avoid three flaws, which are explained with the example of a vessel. In
this context, we are the vessel, while the teaching is what has to be poured into it.
Now, suppose first that the vessel is covered with a lid: obviously,
we will not be able to pour anything into it. This is analogous to the situation of someone
who listens to the teaching with a closed mind, that is to say, a mind that is already
made up. In such circumstances, the Dharma cannot enter into and fill his mind.
Again, suppose we have a vessel with a hole in the bottom: if we try
to fill it with milk, the liquid simply runs out the hole. This is analogous to someone who
does not retain what he hears, so that no amount of teaching is of any use.
Finally, suppose we fill the vessel with fresh milk before checking
to see that it is clean, and there is some spoiled milk left in it from the previous day: the
fresh milk that we pour into the vessel will naturally spoil as well. In the same way, if
someone listens to the teaching with an impure mind, the teaching will be of no benefit. For
example, someone who listens to the Dharma for selfish purposes, say because he wants
to gain honor and recognition, is like a vessel already tainted with impurities.
We must all try to avoid these three flaws when we approach the
teaching of the Buddha. The correct attitude to adopt in listening to the Dharma is that of a
patient who pays careful attention to the advice of his physician. Here the Buddha is
like the physician, the teaching functions as the medicine, we are the patient, and the
practice of the teaching is the means by which we can be cured of the disease of the afflictions
(attachment, aversion, and ignorance), which is the cause of our suffering. We
will surely achieve some degree of right understanding if we approach the study of the
Dharma with this attitude.
Right understanding itself is often divided into two aspects, or
levels: an ordinary level, and a higher one. In Chapter 4, I mentioned the goals that Buddhism
offers, which also belong to two different levels: the goal of happiness and prosperity
belongs to this life and the next, while the goal of freedom, or nirvana, is the
ultimate
aim of practice. The ordinary level of right understanding corresponds to this first,
mundane goal of the practice of Buddhism, while the higher level of right understanding
corresponds to the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice.
The first, ordinary aspect of right understanding is concerned with
correct appreciation of the relationship between cause and effect, and pertains to moral
responsibility for our behavior. Briefly stated, this means that we will experience the
effects of our actions sooner or later. If we act well--preserving the values of respect for
life, property, truth, and so forth--we will experience the happy effects of our good
actions: in other words, we will enjoy happiness and fortunate conditions in this and in the
next life. Conversely, if we act badly, we will experience unhappiness, misery, and
unfortunate conditions in this life and in future lives.
The second, higher aspect of right understanding is concerned with
seeing things as they really are, and pertains to the ultimate goal of the teaching of the
Buddha. What do we mean when we say "see things as they really are"? Again,
doctrinal answers can be given: to see things as they really are can mean seeing things as
impermanent, as interdependently originated, as impersonal, and so forth. All these
answers are correct. All have something to say about seeing things as they really are. But
to arrive at an understanding of this first step--and, in a sense, the last step--of
the Noble Eightfold Path, we must look for something that all these doctrinal expressions
of right understanding have in common. What we find is that all these descriptions of the
meaning of right understanding are opposed to ignorance, bondage, and
entanglement in the cycle of birth and death.
The Buddha's attainment of enlightenment was essentially an
experience of the destruction of ignorance. This experience is most frequently
described by the Buddha himself in terms of understanding the Four Noble Truths and
interdependent origination, both of which are concerned with the destruction of ignorance. In
this sense, ignorance is the central problem for Buddhism. The key conception in both the Four
Noble Truths and interdependent origination is ignorance, its consequences and
elimination. Let us look again, for a moment, at the formula of the Four Noble
Truths. The key to transforming our experience from the experience of suffering to that
of the end of suffering is understanding the second noble truth, the truth of the
cause of suffering. Once we understand the causes of suffering, we can act to achieve the end
of suffering. As mentioned in Chapter 4, the Four Noble Truths are divided into two
groups: the first, which includes the truth of suffering and the truth of the cause of
suffering, is to be abandoned; the second, which includes the truth of the end of
suffering and the truth of the path, is to be gained.
Understanding the cause of suffering enables us to accomplish this.
This can be seen clearly in the Buddha's own description of his experience on the
night of his enlightenment. When the Buddha perceived the causes of
suffering--when he understood that attachment, aversion, and ignorance were those causes--this
opened the door to freedom and enlightenment for him. Attachment, aversion, and
ignorance are the causes of suffering. But if we want to restrict our examination to the most
essential component, we must focus on ignorance, because it is due to ignorance that
attachment and aversion arise.
Ignorance is the idea of a permanent, independent personality, or
self. It is this conception of an "I," separate from and opposed to the people and
things around us, that is the fundamental cause of suffering. Once we have the idea of such an
"I," we have a natural inclination toward those things in our experience that sustain and
support this "I," and a natural inclination away from those things that we imagine threaten
this "I." It is this conception of an independent self that is the fundamental cause of
suffering, the root of the various harmful emotions: attachment, aversion, greed, anger,
envy, and jealousy. It is ignorance of the fact that the so-called I, or self, is just a
convenient name for a collection of ever-changing, interdependent, contingent factors that is at the
bottom of all such emotional entanglements.
But is there a forest apart from the trees? The "I," or
self, is just a common name for a collection of processes. When the self is taken to be real and
independent, it is a cause of suffering and fear. In this context, believing in an independent self
may be likened to mistaking a rope for a snake in the semidarkness. If we come upon
a
rope in a darkened room, we may assume the rope to be really a snake, and that
assumption is a cause of fear. Similarly, because of the darkness of ignorance, we take the
impermanent, impersonal processes of feeling, perception, and so forth to be a
real, independent self. As a result, we respond to situations with hope and fear, desire certain
things and are averse to others, are fond of some people and dislike others.
Therefore, ignorance is the mistaken idea of a permanent ego,
or a
real self. This teaching of impersonality, or not-self, does not contradict the doctrine of
moral responsibility, the law of karma. In fact, you will recall that a moment ago we described
right understanding in terms of two aspects--understanding the law of karma, and seeing
things as they really are. Once the erroneous notion of the self, which is egocentrism, is
dispelled by right understanding, then attachment, aversion, and the other emotional
afflictions do not occur. When all these cease, the end of suffering is attained. I do
not expect all this to be immediately clear. Indeed, I devote a number of chapters to the
notion of ignorance in Buddhism, and to its correctives.
Let us go on, for the present, to the next step of the path that
belongs to the wisdom group--namely, right thought. Here we can begin to see the
reintegration, or reapplication, of the wisdom aspect of the path to good conduct,
because thought has an immense influence on our behavior. The Buddha said that if we act and
speak with a pure mind, happiness follows like a shadow, whereas if we act and speak
with an impure mind, suffering follows as the wheel of a cart follows the hoof of
the ox that draws it. Right thought means avoiding attachment and aversion. The causes of
suffering are said to be ignorance, attachment, and aversion. While right understanding
removes ignorance, right thought removes attachment and aversion; therefore, right
understanding and right thought together remove the causes of suffering.
To remove attachment and greed we must cultivate
renunciation, while
to remove aversion and anger we must cultivate love and compassion. How do we
go about cultivating the attitudes of renunciation and love and compassion,
which act as correctives to attachment and aversion? Renunciation is developed by
contemplating the unsatisfactory nature of existence, particularly the unsatisfactory
nature of pleasures of the senses. Pleasures of the senses are likened to saltwater. A
thirsty man who drinks saltwater in the hope of quenching his thirst only finds that it
increases. The Buddha also likened sense pleasures to a certain fruit that has an attractive
exterior and is fragrant and tasty, but that is poisonous if eaten. Similarly, pleasures are
attractive and enjoyable yet cause disaster. Therefore, to cultivate renunciation, you must
consider the undesirable consequences of pleasures of the senses.
In addition, we must appreciate the fact that the very nature of
samsara, the cycle of birth and death, is suffering. No matter where we are born within that
cycle, our situation will be saturated with suffering. The nature of samsara is suffering, just
as the nature of fire is heat. Through understanding the unsatisfactory nature of existence
and recognizing the undesirable consequences of pleasures of the senses, we can cultivate
renunciation and detachment.
Similarly, we can develop love and compassion through recognizing the
essential equality of all living beings. Like us, all living beings fear death
and tremble at the idea of punishment. Understanding this, we should not kill other living
beings or cause them to be killed. Like us, all living beings desire life and happiness.
Understanding this, we should not place ourselves above others or regard ourselves any
differently from the way we regard others.
Recognition of the essential equality of all living beings is
fundamental to the cultivation of love and compassion. All living beings desire happiness and fear
pain just as much as we do. Recognizing this, we ought to regard all with love and
compassion. Moreover, we ought to actively cultivate the wish that all living beings be happy
and free from suffering. In this way we can all cultivate the beneficial attitudes
of renunciation and love and compassion, which correct and eventually eliminate attachment and
aversion. Finally, by means of the practice of the wisdom aspect of the path--which
includes not only right thought but also right understanding--we can eliminate the
afflictions of ignorance, attachment, and aversion, attaining freedom and the supreme happiness
of nirvana, which is the ultimate goal of the Noble Eightfold Path.
