Part One
The Fundamentals of Buddhism
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Chapter Five
Morality
In
Chapter 4 we discussed the Four Noble Truths, our last topic being the
fourth truth,
which
consists of the Noble Eightfold Path to the end of suffering. There we
used the
analogy
of climbing a mountain, where the very first step depends on keeping the
summit
firmly
in view, while the last step depends on being careful not to stumble at
the outset.
In
other words, each part of the way depends on the other parts, and if any
part of the path
is
not completed, the summit will not be gained. In the same way, in the
case of the Noble
Eightfold
Path, all the steps are interrelated and depend on one another. We
cannot do
away
with any one step.
Nonetheless,
as mentioned at the end of Chapter 4, the eight steps of the path have
been
divided
into three ways of practice: (1) morality, (2) mental development, and
(3)
wisdom.
Although, conceptually and structurally speaking, the first step of
climbing a
mountain
depends on the last and the last depends on the first, practically
speaking, we do
have
to climb the lowest slopes first. We may be attracted to the summit, but
to get there
we
must cross the lower slopes first; only then can we proceed to the
higher
reaches. It is
for
this very practical reason that the steps of the Noble Eightfold Path
have been divided
into
these three ways of practice.
The
first of these three ways of practice is morality. Morality forms the
foundation of
further
progress on the path, of further personal development. It is said that,
just as the
earth
is the basis of all animate and inanimate things, so morality is the
basis of all
positive
qualities. When we look around us, we can see that everything rests on
the earth,
from
buildings to bridges, animals to human beings. The earth supports all
these things;
in
the same way, morality is the foundation of all qualities, all virtues,
all attainments,
ranging
from the mundane to the supramundane, from success and good fortune to
skill in
meditation
and, ultimately, wisdom and enlightenment. By means of this analogy, we
can
easily
understand the importance of good conduct as a fundamental prerequisite
for
following
the path and achieving results on it.
Why
do we take the trouble to stress the importance of good conduct as the
foundation of
progress
on the path? The reason is that there is a tendency to think of good
conduct as
rather
dull and boring. Meditation sounds more exciting and interesting, and
philosophy
and
wisdom, too, have a kind of fascination about them. There is a dangerous
temptation
to
neglect the importance of morality and want to go straight on to the
more exciting parts
of
the path. But if we do not create this foundation of good conduct, we
will not succeed
in
following the other steps of the path.
It
is necessary to understand how the rules of good conduct,
or the
precepts, are
established
in Buddhism, because there are different ways in which moral or ethical
codes
can
be presented. If you look at the moral teachings of the major religions
of the world,
you
will find that there is a surprising degree of agreement among them. If
you look, for
instance,
at the moral teachings of Confucius or Lao Tzu, at those of the Buddha
and of
Hindu
teachers, and at those of Jews, Christians, and Muslims, you will find
that the basic
rules
of good conduct are almost identical. However, although the rules in
most cases
correspond
almost exactly, the attitudes toward these codes and the ways they are
presented,
understood, and interpreted differ considerably from faith to faith.
In
general, there are two ways moral codes can be established--what we
might call
the
authoritarian
way and the democratic way. A good example of
the former is God handing
down
the tablets of the Ten
Commandments to Moses on the mountain. By
contrast, in
Buddhism
we have what I think we can call a democratic way of establishing the
basic
rules
of good conduct. You may wonder why I say this when, after all, we do
have rules
of
morality laid down in scriptures. You might ask, "Isn't this
similar to God handing
down
the commandments to Moses?" I think not, because if we look
more
closely at the
meaning
of Buddhist scriptures, we can see what lies behind the rules of good
conduct--
namely,
the principles of equality and reciprocity.
The
principle of equality holds that all living beings are the same in their
basic orientation
and
outlook. In other words, all living beings want to be happy, to enjoy
life, and to avoid
suffering
and death. This is just as true of other living beings as it is of us.
The principle
of
equality is at the heart of the universality of the
Buddha's vision.
Understanding the
principle
of equality, we are
encouraged to act in light of the additional
awareness of the
principle
of reciprocity.
Reciprocity
means that, just as we would not like to be abused, robbed, injured, or
killed,
so
all other living beings are
unwilling to have such things happen to
them. We can put
this
principle of reciprocity quite simply by saying, "Do not act toward
others in a way
you
would not want them to act toward you." Once
we are aware of these
principles of
equality
and reciprocity, it is
not hard to see how they form the foundation of
the rules of
good
conduct in Buddhism.
Let
us now look specifically at the contents of morality in Buddhism. The
way of practice
of
good conduct
includes three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path: (a) right
speech,
(b)
right
action, and (c) right livelihood.
Right
speech constitutes an extremely important aspect of the
path. We often
underestimate
the power of speech. As a
consequence, we sometimes exercise very little
control
over our
faculty of speech. This should not be so. We have all been very
greatly
hurt
by someone's words at some time or other in our lives,
and similarly, we
have
sometimes
been greatly encouraged by the
words someone has said. In the area of
public
life,
we can clearly
see how those who are able to communicate effectively are
able to
influence
people tremendously, for better or for worse. Hitler,
Churchill,
Kennedy, and
Martin
Luther King were all accomplished
speakers who were able to influence
millions
with
their words. It is
said that a harsh word can wound more deeply than a
weapon,
whereas
a gentle word can change the heart and mind of even the
most hardened
criminal.
Perhaps
more than anything else, the
faculty of speech differentiates humans
from
animals,
so if we wish
to create a society in which communication, cooperation,
harmony,
and well-being are goals to be attained, we must control, cultivate,
and
use our
speech
in helpful ways.
All
the rules of good conduct imply respect for values founded
on an
understanding of the
principles
of equality and reciprocity. In
this context, right speech implies
respect for
truth
and respect for
the well-being of others. If we use our faculty of
speech with these
values
in mind, we will be cultivating right speech, and through this
we will
achieve
greater
harmony in our relationships with others.
Traditionally, we speak of
four aspects
of
right speech--namely,
the avoidance of (a) lying, (b) backbiting or
slander, (c) harsh
speech,
and (d) idle talk.
Some
of you may already be familiar with the Buddha's
instructions to his son
Rahula
about
the importance of avoiding
lying. He used the example of a vessel. The
vessel had
a
little bit of
water in the bottom, which he asked Rahula to look at,
commenting, "The
virtue
and renunciation of those who are not
ashamed of lying is small, like
the small
amount
of water in the
vessel." Next, the Buddha threw away the water in
the vessel and
said,
"Those who are not ashamed of lying throw away their virtue,
just
as I have thrown
away
this water." Then the Buddha showed
Rahula the empty vessel and
said, "Just as
empty
is the virtue and
renunciation of those who habitually tell lies."
In
this way the
Buddha used the vessel to make the point that our practice
of
wholesome
actions,
our good conduct and character, are intimately
affected by lying. If we
are
convinced
that we can act in one way
and speak in another, then we will not
hesitate to
act
badly,
because we will be confident that we will be able to cover up our
harmful
actions
by lying. Lying therefore opens the door to all kinds
of unwholesome
acts.
Slander
is divisive. It creates quarrels
between friends, and it creates pain
and discord in
society.
Therefore, just as we would not like to have our friends turned
against
us by
someone's
slanderous talk, so we ought not to
slander others.
Similarly,
we ought not to abuse others with harsh words. On
the contrary, we
should
speak
courteously to others, as we would
like them to speak to us.
When
we come to idle talk, you may
wonder why we cannot even engage in a
little
chitchat.
But the
prohibition against idle talk is not absolute or general. The
kind of
idle
talk
meant here is malicious gossip--that is, diverting ourselves
and others
by recounting
people's
faults and failings.
In
short, why not simply refrain from using the faculty of speech--which,
as we have
seen,
is so powerful--for deception,
creating divisions among others, abusing
others, and
idling
away
time at their expense? Instead, why not use it constructively--for
communicating
meaningfully, uniting people, encouraging
understanding between friends
and
neighbors, and imparting helpful
advice? The Buddha once said,
"Pleasant speech is
as
sweet as
honey; truthful speech is beautiful, like a flower; and wrong
speech
is
unwholesome,
like filth." So let us try, for our own good and the
good of
others, to
cultivate
right speech--namely, respect both for
truth and for the welfare of
others.
The
next part of the Noble
Eightfold Path that falls into the category of
morality is right
action.
Right action implies (a) respect for life, (b) respect for property,
and
(c) respect
for
personal relationships. You will recall what I
said a moment ago about
life being dear
to
all. It is said in the
Dhammapada that all living beings tremble at the
prospect of
punishment,
all fear death, and all love life. Hence, again keeping in
mind the
principles
of
equality and reciprocity, we ought not to kill
living beings. You might
be ready to
accept
this for human beings
but demure with regard to some other living
creatures. Here,
however,
some of the developments in recent years in the fields of
science and
technology
ought to give the most skeptical freethinker
food for thought. For
instance,
when
we destroy a particular strain
of insect, are we absolutely certain of
accomplishing
the
greatest,
long-term good of all, or do we, more often than not, instead
contribute
unwittingly
to an imbalance in the ecosystem that will
create even greater problems
in the
future?
Respect
for property means not to rob, steal from, or cheat others. This is
important
because
those who take what is not given
by force, stealth, or treachery are
guilty of
breaking
this precept.
The employer who does not pay his employee an honest wage,
commensurate
with the work performed, is guilty of taking what is
not given; the
employee
who collects his salary but shirks his duties
is equally guilty of lack
of respect
for
property.
Finally,
respect for personal relationships means, first of all, to
avoid sexual
misconduct.
Put
most simply, it means avoiding
adultery. Beyond that, it means avoiding
sexual
liaisons
with people
who are liable to be harmed by such relations. More
generally, it
means
avoiding abuse of the senses. You can easily see how, if
these
guidelines are
followed
in a given community, such a
community will be a better place in which
to live.
Right
livelihood is
the third step of the Noble Eightfold Path included in the
way of
practice
of morality. Right livelihood is an extension of the rules of
right
action to our
roles
as breadwinners in society. We have just
seen that, in the cases of
right speech and
right
action, the
underlying values are respect for truth, for the welfare of
others,
and for
life,
property, and personal relationships. Right livelihood
means earning a
living in a
way
that does not violate these basic
moral values.
Five
kinds of livelihood are discouraged for Buddhists: trading
in animals
for slaughter,
slaves,
arms, poisons, and intoxicants
(drugs and alcohol). These five are not
recommended
because they
contribute to the ills of society and violate the values of
respect
for
life and for the welfare of others. Dealing in animals for slaughter
violates the
value
of respect for life. Dealing in slaves violates both
respect for life
and right action in
personal
relationships. Dealing in
arms also violates the value of respect for
life, while
dealing
in
poisons or intoxicants also does not respect the lives and welfare of
others. All
these
trades contribute to insecurity, discord, and
suffering in the world.
How
does the practice of good conduct, or
morality, work? We have said that,
in the
context
of society at
large, following the rules of good conduct creates a
social
environment
characterized by harmony and peace. All our social
goals can be achieved
within
the rules of good conduct based on
the fundamental principles of
equality and
reciprocity.
In addition,
each person benefits from the practice of good conduct. In
one of
his
discourses, the Buddha said that someone who has observed
respect for
life and so
forth
feels like a king, duly crowned and with
his enemies subdued. Such a
person feels at
peace
and at ease.
The
practice of morality creates an inner sense of tranquillity, stability,
security, and
strength.
Once you have created that inner
peace, you can successfully follow the
other
steps
of the path. You
can cultivate and perfect the various aspects of mental
development.
You can then achieve wisdom--but only after you
have created the
necessary
foundation of morality both within and
without, both in yourself and in
your
relationships
with others.
Very
briefly, these are the origin, contents, and goal of good conduct in
Buddhism. There
is
just one more point I would like to
make before concluding our review of
Buddhist
morality.
When
people consider the rules of good conduct, they often think,
"How
can we
possibly
follow them?" It seems to be terribly difficult to
observe the
precepts. For
instance,
even the prohibition against
taking life, which is the most fundamental,
appears
very
difficult to
follow absolutely. Every day, as you clean the kitchen or
putter
about the
garden,
you are very likely to kill some insect that
happens to get in your way.
Also, it
appears
very difficult even to
avoid lying in all cases. How are we to deal with
this
problem,
which is a genuine one?
The
point is not whether we can observe all the rules of morality all the
time. Rather, the
point
is that, if the rules of morality
are well founded (i.e., if the
principles of equality and
reciprocity
are worth believing in, and if the rules of morality are an
appropriate
way of
enacting
them), then it is our duty to follow
these rules as much as we possibly
can. This
is
not to say that we
will be able to follow them absolutely, but only that
we ought to do
our
best to follow the way of practice indicated by the rules of
good
conduct. If we want
to
live at peace with ourselves and
others, then we ought to respect the
life and welfare of
others,
their
property, and so on. If a situation arises in which we find
ourselves
unable to
apply
a particular rule, that is not the fault of the rule, but
simply an
indication of the gap
between
our own practice of
morality and the ideal practice of it.
When,
in ancient times, seafarers navigated their ships across the great
oceans with the
aid
of the stars, they were not able to
follow exactly the course indicated
by those
heavenly
bodies. Yet
the stars were their guides, and by following them, however
approximately,
mariners reached their destination. In the same way,
when we follow the
rules
of good conduct, we do not pretend that
we can observe all of them all
the time.
This
is why the five
precepts are called "training precepts"; it is
also why we renew
them
again
and again. What we have in the rules of good conduct is
a framework
through
which
we can try to live in accord with the
two fundamental principles that
illuminate the
teaching
of the
Buddha: the principle of the equality of all living beings, and
the
principle
of
reciprocal respect.
