Time
and Space
The Abhidhamma perspective
Professor Y.
Karunadasa
Former Director, Postgraduate
Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies,
Lanka daily News, Aug 10, 2003
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Since our idea of the void is due to the environing matter, and since all
matter, from the point of view of the elemental analysis, depends on the
primary elements, the space-element, too, can be said to depend on them.
In the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, too, we find its counterpart, also
referred to as akasadhatu, but in this system its inclusion in matter is
due to another reason: The space-element is either light (aloka) or
darkness (tamas) and therefore it is included in the objective sense-field
of the visible (rupayatana). In contrast, the Theravadins include it in
the objective field of mental objects (dhammayatana), which means that it
is not visible but can be cognized only as an object of
mind-consciousness.
We find this view defended in a Kathavatthu controversy as well. In
response to the view held by some Buddhist schools that space is visible
because one can see the interval between two trees or two posts or the
space in a keyhole or in a window, The Theravadins' reply is that in the
case of an interval between two trees, for instance, what one actually
sees with his eyes is only the colour of the two trees and that the
interval as such is known only by the mind as an object of
mind-consciousness.
Besides the space referred to above, the Sarvastivadins recognize another
kind of space which is called akasa and not akasa-dhatu. It is defined not
as space bound by matter but as that which provides room for the movement
of matter (yatra rupasya gatih). It is omni-present (sarvagata) and
eternal (nitya). Its nature is non-obstruction (anavaranasvabhava).
That is to say, it does not obstruct (avrnoti) matter, which freely exists
therein; nor is it obstructed (avryate) by matter, for it cannot be
dislodged by the latter. However, space is not the mere absence of
obstruction (anavarana-bhava-matra), but something positively real. In
view of these characteristics, in the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, space is
elevated to the level of an unconditioned dharma and in this sense it is
on a par with pratisamkhya- and apratisamkhya-nirodha. Thus what the
Sarvastivadins call unconditioned space is the space considered as
absolutely real and as serving as a receptacle for the existence and
movement of material phenomena.
What could be considered as the Theravada counterpart of this kind of
space is found only in one Theravada work, namely the Milindapanha. Here
we find space defined as follows: In no way can it be grasped (sabbaso
agayha); it inspires terror (santasaniya); it is infinite (ananta),
boundless (appamana) and immeasurable (appameyya). It does not cling to
anything (alagga); is not attached to anything (asatta), rests on nothing
(appatittha) and is not obstructed by anything (apalibuddha). Elsewhere in
the same work we are told that two things in this world are not born of
karma (akammaja), or of causes (ahetuja), or of season (anutuja), namely
Nibbana and space.
However, what is important to remember here is that although the
Milindapanha describes space in such a way as to fall in line with its
counterpart in the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, it carefully avoids the use of
the term "unconditioned" (asankhata) in describing it. This is a very
significant departure from its Sarvastivada version. What could have
prompted the Milindapanha to take this stance is that such a description
would elevate space to a level on par with Nibbana.
However, what is important to remember here is that the kind of space
described in the Milindapanha is not the same as the space-element listed
in the Dhammasangani. For the latter means not space in the sense of "bare
geometric extension" but spaces bounded by matter. What can be considered
as a parallel to the Milindapanha space is found in the Kathavatthu of the
Abhidhamma Pitaka. For here too space is described more in terms of that
which provides room for the existence and movement of material phenomena.
However, unlike in the Milindapanha it is not described as infinite and
eternal, but as something neither conditioned nor unconditioned. The
commentary observes that if space is so described, this means that it is a
pannatti, i.e., a nominal dhamma or a conceptual construct with no
objective counterpart.
Thus in the Theravada Abhidhamma as well we find two kinds of space. What
led to this idea can be traced to the early Buddhist discourses
themselves. Here space is sometimes described as referring to cavities,
apertures and interstices. This is what the suttas mean by akasa-dhatu
(space-element), when it is counted as one of the six elements (dhatu)
into which the empiric individuality is analysed. And when the Sangiti
Sutta of the Dighanikaya refers to a material phenomenon that is neither
visible (anidassana) nor impingent (appatigha), it is very likely that the
reference is to this space element. And it is this same space-element that
we find in the abhidhamma list of secondary material phenomena
(upada-rupa) as the principle of material delimitation (pariccheda-rupa).
Sometimes we find in the Pali suttas space described not as void region
but as the ultimate basis, a sort of fulcrum or receptacle for the
existence of the physical world. In the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, for
instance, the Buddha is represented as saying:
"This great earth, O Ananda, rests on water, water on air, and air on
space". And in the Rahulovada Sutta it is said that space for its part
does not rest on anything (akaso na kattha ci patitthito). In point of
fact, the Milindapanha cites this same statement in its reference to space
as described there. Equal significant is an observation found in the
Abhidharmakosavyakhya of Acarya Yasomitra.
It says that when the Vaibhasikas (Sarvastivadins) argue that space is
real they base this argument on a sutra-passage where the Buddha declares
to a Brahmin that the earth rests on the circle of water, the circle of
water on air, air on space and that space for its part does not rest on
anything, does not cling to anything.
It is this latter kind of space that came to be elevated in the
Milindapanha almost to the level of an unconditioned dhamma. And it is
also this same space that the Kathavatthu describes as neither conditioned
nor unconditioned, and this, as the commentary says, means that it is a
conceptual construct. In the commentaries it is sometimes introduced as
infinite space (anantakasa) and boundless space (ajatakasa).
Both terms highlight its difference from the space-element in the sense of
bounded space. The use of these two terms does not mean that space is
regarded as something real and absolute. The use of another term, empty
space (tucchakasa) does, in fact, highlight its true nature. For as noted
earlier, for the Pali commentaries space in the sense of "bare geometric
extension" is a mere conceptual construct. (pannatti-matta).
The reference to two kinds of space could be considered as looking at the
same phenomenon from two different angles. The first, which is always
introduced by the compound word, akasa-dhatu (space-element) means space
as void region or as that which delimits material phenomena. The second
which is introduced by the simple term, akasa (space) means space as
providing room for the existence and movement of matter. It may then be
asked why the former is described as conditioned (sankhata) and the latter
as neither conditioned nor unconditioned (= pannatti or conceptual
construct). The reason for this is that although the former is presented
as one of the secondary material phenomena (upada-rupa), it is not
considered as an entity distinct from the other material phenomena. It is
the method followed in the Dhammasangani that in recognizing certain
characteristics and modalities connected with real rupa-dhammas (elements
of matter), those characteristics and modalities themselves are presented
as separate and co-ordinate rupa-dhammas. It is only a pedagogic device
adopted to avoid the distinction between substance and quality entering
into the list of rupa-dhammas.
The Pali commentators were fully aware of this of this situation. This
should explain why in the commentaries the space-element of the
Dhammasangani came to be included in a category called anipphanna-rupa.
What is included in this category is, strictly speaking, not a dhamma,
because it has no own-nature (sabhava.) Nor is it of the nature of rupa in
the sense of matter, because it does not answer to its definition. If the
items included in the category of anipphanna-rupa continue to be presented
as rupa-dhammas, this, as the commentators say, is done only as a matter
of convention (rulhiya.)
What all this amounts to is that in the ultimate sense (nippariyayena),
the space-element (akasa-dhatu) is not different from space (akasa). Both
are conceptual constructs with no corresponding objective reality. This
reminds us of the Sautrantika school of Buddhism where space is defined as
the mere absence of the 'substance' that has the characteristic of
resistance or impenetrability" (sapratighadravyabhavamatra).
Since matter is defined as that which has the characteristic of resistance
or impenetrability, the above definition can be rephrased to mean that
space is the mere absence of matter. This definition is intended to show
that space is not something positively real but a conceptual construct
having only derivative and pragmatic validity (prajnapti-sat). The
addition of the word, mere (matra) is to emphasize the fact that
non-existence of matter does not mean the existence of anything other than
matter. Space is not the opposite of matter but the mere absence of
matter. The inclusion of time and space in the category of pannattis in
other words means that they are not dhammas. The dhammas, as we have
already noted, are the entities that have ontological ultimacy. Hence they
are often described as paramattha, that is, that which exists in a real
and ultimate sense. The description of dhammas as paramattha means not
only their objective existence (paramatthato vijjamanata) but also their
cognizability in an ultimate sense (paramatthato upalabbhamanata).
Thus from an ontological point of view, if the dhammas represent the final
limit into which the analysis of empirical existence can be pushed, from
an epistemological point of view they represent the objects of higher
knowledge. The pannattis, on the other hand, signify those entities that
have no objective counterparts and therefore which owe their being to
mind's synthetic function (kappana).
Therefore the two terms, paramattha and pannatti, could be understood as
indicating two levels of reality as well: The first refers to those
entities that truly exist independently of the cognitive act and the
second, to those entities that owe their being to the act of cognition
itself. These two categories are said to be mutually exclusive and
together they provide a rational explanation for the totality of our
internal and external experience. Hence it is categorically stated that
apart from pannatti and paramattha a third category does not obtain
(tatiya koti na vijjati). In consonance with this situation pannatti is
also defined as "that which is other than the dhammas" (tato avasesa), or
as "that which remains after the mental and material dhammas"
(namarupa-vinimmutta).
Since time and space are two pannattis, they are definable as two
asabhava-dhammas as well, that is, as two entities devoid of own-nature.
Since sabhava or own-nature is not different from the dhamma, from the
perspective of this definition what is qualified as asabhava amounts to an
abhava, a non-existent in the ultimate sense. Hence the three salient
characteristics of empirical reality, namely origination (uppada),
existence (thiti), and dissolution (bhanga) are not applicable to time and
space. For these three characteristics can be predicated only of those
things which properly answer to the Abhidhammic definition of empirical
reality. Again, unlike the real existent (= dhammas) they are not brought
about by conditions (paccayatthitika). For this self same reason, both
time and space can also be defined as aparinipphanna, that is, not
positively produced. Aparinipphannata or positive production is true of
only those things, which have their own individual essence
(avenika-sabhava).
As the Abhidhamma Mulatika says, "only a dhamma that is an individual
essence, with a definite beginning and a definite end in time, produced by
conditions, and marked by the three salient characteristics of the
conditioned existence, is positively produced". as two pannattis, another
important characteristic of time and space is that they cannot be
described either as sankhata (conditioned) or as asankhata
(unconditioned), for to be so described they do not possess their
own-nature.
Since the two terms, sankhata and asankhata, represent the totality of
conditioned and unconditioned existence, the description of time and space
as neither conditioned nor unconditioned is another way of referring to
their non-existence as real and ultimate existents.
Again, unlike the dhammas, time and space as pannattis are not delimited
by rise and fall (udayabbaya-paricchnina). Such a situation is true only
of dhammas, because they come into being having been not (ahutva
sambhonti) and cease to exist after having been (hutva pativenti). In
contrast, time and space have no individual essence to be manifested in
the three instants of arising (uppada), presence (thiti), and dissolution
(bhanga). Thus, since they have no existence marked by the three
instantaneous phases-the nascent, static, and cessant - temporal
distinctions as past, present, and future do not apply to them. As such,
both time and space are also described as kala-vimutta, that is, free from
time.
Here "free from time" means that the three temporal distinctions as past,
present, and future do not apply to them. That space is free from time is
understandable. But how are we to understand that time is free from time,
that is, free from the three temporal distinctions?
The answer to this question is that, according to the Abhidhamma, what we
call the three temporal distinctions are not three phases of an absolute
time but three conceptual constructs which we superimpose on the incessant
flow of the dhammas. Past means the dhammas that have ceased to exist,
present means the dhammas that exist, and future means the dhammas that
are yet to originate.
The Abhidhamma distinguishes two kinds of pannatti. One is called
nama-pannatti. It refers to names, words, signs, or symbols through which
things, real or unreal, are designated: "It is the mere mode of
recognizing (sannakaramatta) by way of this or that word whose
significance is determined by worldly convention". It is created by
worldly consent (loka-sanketa-nimmita) and established by worldly usage
(lokavoharena siddha). The other, called attha-pannatti, refers to ideas,
notions or concepts corresponding to the names, words, signs, or symbols.
It is produced by the interpretative function of the mind (kappana) and is
based on the various forms or appearances presented by the real elements
(dhammas) when they are in particular situations or positions
(avattha-visesa). Both nama-pannatti and attha-pannatti thus have a
psychological origin and as such both are devoid of objective reality.
Nama-pannatti is often defined as that which makes known (pannapanato
pannatti) and attha-pannatti as that which is made known (pannapiyata
pannatti). The former is an instance of agency-definition (kattu-sadhana)
and the latter of object-definition (kammasadhana). What both attempt to
show is that nama-pannatti which makes attha-pannatti known, and
attha-pannatti which is made known by nama-pannatti, are mutually
inter-dependent and therefore logically inseparable.
This explains the significance of another definition, which states that
nama-pannnatti is the term's relationship with the ideas (saddassa atthehi
sambandho). These two pairs of definition show that the two processes of
conceptualization and verbalization through the symbolic medium of
language are but two separate aspects of the same phenomenon. It is for
the convenience of definition that what really amounts to a single
phenomenon is treated from two different angles, which represent two ways
of looking at the same thing.
The difference is established by defining the same word, pannatti, in two
different ways. When it is defined as subject it is nama-pannatti - the
concept as name. When it is defined as object it is attha-pannatti - the
concept as meaning. If the former is that which expresses (vacaka), the
latter is that which is expressible (vacaniya). In this same sense, if the
former is abhidhana or designation, the latter is abhidheya or that which
is designated. Since attha-pannatti stands for the process of
conceptualization it represents more the subjective and dynamic aspect,
and since nama-pannatti stands for the process of verbalization it
represents more the objective and static aspect. For the assignment of a
term to what is constructed in thought - in other words - its expression
through the symbolic medium of language - invests it with some kind of
relative permanence and objectivity. It is, so to say, crystallized into
an entity.
Since time and space are two instances of pannatti, the foregoing
observations on the two kinds of pannatti apply to them equally.
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Source:
http://www.buddhistnews.tv
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Update: 01-09-2003